Walkin on Sunshine

lab 1 & 2 pictures

2008-05-13T18:05:00.000-07:00

Pregnancy Lab Pictures
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Lab 2
The two graphs below show the population in two countries and fertility rates.

Final Lab

I emailed these photos to you. Please look for them.

lab 1 & 2, Final Lab & Ethical Essay

2008-05-13T17:28:00.001-07:00

Lab 1 About Pregnancy
I could not get the pictures to load so I am going to email them to you.

Pic 1
Trophoblast cells continue to engulf and destroy cells of the uterine lining creating blood pools and stimulating new capillaries to grow - beginning the growth of the placenta.
The blastocyst inner cell mass differentiates into two layers:
EPIBLAST The top layer of cells (dark blue) which will become the embryo and amniotic cavity.
HYPOBLAST Lower layer of cells (yellow) which become the yolk sac.Ectopic pregnancies - implantation sites not in the uterus - can occur at this time and may continue up to 16 weeks unnoticed. Quick diagnosis can pharmacologically treat without surgery preserving the site of the pregnancy.

Pic 2
Esophagus Forming stage 16
SIZE: 5.0 - 7.0 mm31- 35 days post-ovulationn
Head and NeckThe brain and head grow rapidly. The mandibular and hyoid arches are noticeable. Ridges demarcate the three sections of the brain (midbrain, forebrain and hindbrain). The spinal cord wall at this stage contains three zones: the ventricular, the mantle and the marginal. The ventricular zone will form neurons, glial cells and ependymal cells, the intermediate mantle will form neuron clusters and the marginal zone will contain processes of neurons. Adenohypophyseal pouch, which will develop into the anterior pituitary, is defined.Lens vesicle opens to the surface and is nestled within the otptic cup. Otic vesicle increases its size by approximately one-fourth and its endolymphatic appendage is more defined. Nasal plate can be detected by thickened ectoderm.ThoraxEsophagus, the tube through which food is swallowed, forms from a groove of tissue that separates from the trachea, which is also visible.Semilunar valves begin to form in the heart. Four major subdivisions of the heart (the trabeculated left and right ventricles, the conus cords and the truncus arteriosus) are clearly defined. Two sprouts, a ventral one from the aortic sac and a dorsal one from the aorta, form the pulmonary (sixth aortic) arch.Right and left lung sacs lie on either side of the esophagus.Abdomen and Pelvic RegionsUreteric bud appear. Metanephros, which will eventually form the permanent kidney, is developing.LimbsUpper limbs elongate into cylindrically-shaped buds, tapering at tip to eventually form hand plate. Nerve distribution process, innervation, begins in the upper limbs .

Pic 3
Hindbrain Begins to Develop
SIZE: 9.0 - 11.0 mmTIME PERIOD: 37 - 42 days post-ovulation
I think that the first few weeks are extremely important because if one thing is not right then it effects the rest of the formation later on. From the cell division to the development of limbs, heart and lungs.
Head and NeckBrain is well marked by its cerebral hemispheres. The hindbrain, which is responsible for heart regulation, breathing and muscle movements, begins to develop.Future lower jaw, the first part of face to be established, is now visible while future upper jaw is present, but not demarcated.Mesenchymal cells originating in the primitive streak, the neural crest and the prechordal plate, continue to form the skull and the face.External retina pigment is visible and the lens pit has grown into a D shape. Nasal pits are still two separate plates, but they rotate to face ventrally as head widens.
ThoraxPrimary cardiac tube separates into aortic and pulmonary channels and the ventricular pouches deepen and enlarge, forming a common wall with their myocardial shells. Mammary gland tissue begins to mature.Abdomen and Pelvic RegionsThe mesentery, which attaches the intestines to the rear abdominal wall, holds them in position and supplies them with blood, nerves and lymphatics, is now clearly defined. Ureter, the tube that will convey urine from the kidney to the bladder, continues to lengthen. Proliferation of the coelomic epithelium indicates the gonadal primordium.LimbsHand region of upper limb bud differentiates further to form a central carpal part and a digital plate. The thigh (rostrolateral part), leg (the caudomedial part) and foot areas can be distinguished in the lower limb buds.

Pic 4
Spontaneous Movement Begins. ••••• Stage 20 first trimester
SIZE: 15.0 - 20.0 mm51 - 53 days post-ovulation
I think this stage is important because movement spontaneously happening and the elbows bend and extend. Joints are forming and the anal membrane is perforated at this time.
Head and NeckBrain is connected to tiny muscles and nerves and enables the embryo to make spontaneous movements. The scalp plexus is now present. Nasal openings and the tip of the nose are fully formed.PelvisAnal membrane is perforated. Urogenital membranes differentiate in male and female embryos. Testes or ovaries are distinguishable.LimbsThe upper limbs become longer and continue to bend at the elbows and extend forward. Skin on the foot plate folds down between the future toes, each distinguishable from the other.nd get stronger.

Pic 5
Bone marrow starts making blood cells 20 weeks
The crown-to-rump length 5.6 to 6.4 inches (14 to 16cm).
I think this stage is important because the heart beat gets stronger and bloods cells are being formed in the blood marrow.
Head and NeckExtremely rapid brain growth begins lasting until five years after birth. Eyebrows and scalp hair become more visible and fetus blinks more often. Lanugo hair covers body completely, although concentrated around head, neck and face.ThoraxHeart beat grows stronger.PelvisTestes of male fetuses begin descending from the pelvis into the scrotum.LimbsLegs approach final length and proportion relative to body. Arms and legs move with more force, as muscles strengthen. Skeleton hardens. Hand strength improves. Although the placenta provides nearly all fetal nourishment, fetus will begin to absorb small amounts of sugar from swallowed amniotic fluid. By 21 weeks, fetal bone marrow starts making blood cells — previously done by the liver and spleen.

Pic 6
Possible hearing 22 weeks
SIZE: weight about 12.25 ounces (350g). Crown-to-rump length at this time is about 7.6 inches (19cm).
I think this stage of development is important because the fetus is able to recognize sounds, breathing, and digestion. It is a time of bonding with the mother.
Head and NeckBones of the ear - hammer, anvil and stirrup - harden, making sound conduction possible. Fetus recognizes maternal sounds such as breathing, heartbeat, voice, and digestion.Thorax Respiratory system continues to develop; lungs are not yet able to transfer oxygen to bloodstream and release carbon dioxide by exhaling.AbdomenBones, muscles and organs are growing steadily.SkinBlood vessels, bones and organs are visible underneath a thin layer of wrinkled, translucent, pink skin.

Pic 7
Brain activity 24 weeks
weight about about 1.2 pounds (540g). Its crown-to-rump length is about 8.4 inches (21cm). Mother's Size:
I think this important because the spine is continuing to form during this time as well as joints and liagments… the foundation for growth and movement.
Head and NeckFetal brain waves begin to activate auditory and visual systems, both mouth and lips show more sensitivity. Eyes respond to light, while ears respond to sounds originating outside uterus. Permanent teeth buds appear high in gums. Nostrils begin to open. Reflex movements improve.Thorax Blood vessels start to develop in lungs to prepare fetus for life outside the uterus. These bloods vessels will eventually exchange oxygen and circulate it to tissues. Air sacs, alveoli, have developed in lungs and begin to produce surfactant, a substance that keeps the lung tissue from sticking to itself. However, lungs are not completely ready to breath air.Limbs Finger and toe nails continue to grow.SpineThe spine consists of 33 rings, 150 joints and 1,000 ligaments, supporting fetal body weight as it develops and strengthens.

Pic 8
Brain Surface Convolutions Begin. ••••• 28 weeks
Fetal size: weight almost 2.4 pounds (1.1kg). Crown-to-rump length is close to 10 inches (25cm). Total length is 15.75 inches (35cm).
I think this is important because the breathing abd body temperatures are regulated by the brain. I think this is vital to surviving after birth.
Head and NeckFetal brain's surface appears wrinkled. These convolutions provide more surface area and maximize brain cells. Rhythmic beathing and body temperature are now controlled by the brain.Lanugo hair has disappeared almost completely, except on back and shoulders. Head hair is present.LimbsProduction of red blood cells is entirely tasken over by the bone marrow.AbdomenFetal body is two to three percent body fat.SkinSkin begins to smoothen as fat deposits accumulate underneath. The fat insulates and is an energy source.

Pic 9
Rapid brain growth; head size increases. ••••• 30 weeksFetal size:
weight about 3 pounds (1.35kg). Its crown-to-rump length is a little over 10.8 inches (27cm), and total length is 17 inches (38cm).I think this is important because the growth of the brain is vital to the inner works of the body. Any abnormalities could possibly lead to disruption in homeostasis.
Head and NeckRapid brain growth continues and head size increases as the growing brain pushes the skull outward creating more surface convolutions. This quick growth increases the number of interconnections between individual nerve cells. The iris is colored and the pupil reflexes responding to light. Head hair grows thicker.
LimbsToenails are fully formed. Because of the lack of space in the uterus, the legs are drawn up in what is known as the fetal position.

Pic 10
Fetus Begins To Develop Immune System. ••••• 32 weeksFetal size:
weight almost 4 pounds (1.8kg). Crown-to-rump length is over 11.6 inches (29cm), and total length is 18.9 inches (42cm).II think this is important because it is when the development begins for the immune system which is necessary for the baby when born to aid them in fighting infections and diseases that might arise.Head and NeckEyes open during alert times and close during sleep. Eye color is usually blue, regardless of the permanent color as pigmentation is not fully developed. Final formation of eye pigmentation requires exposure to light and usually happens a few weeks after birth. The iris is colored and the pupil reflexes responding to light. Head hair grows thicker.AbdomenFetus begins to develop its own immune system. LimbsFingernails reach over finger tips and fetus can scratch itself.SkinWhite fat builds up underneath skin, making fetus appear lighter in color.

Pic 11
Abdomen is large and round as fetal liver is producing blood cells. •••••
38 weeks Fetal size:
weight a little more than 6.8 pounds (3.1kg). Crown-to-rump length hasn’t changed much; it’s still about 14 inches (35cm). Total length is around 21 inches (47cm).Mother's size: From the pubic symphysis to the top of the uterus, measures approximately 14.4 to 15.2 inches (36 to 38cm). From your bellybutton to the top of your uterus is about 6.4 to 7.2 inches (16 to 18cm).
HeadSkull is not fully solid as the five bony plates, known as fontanels (little fountains), are still separate and can be pushed together. Birth may mold and elongate the fetal head, a safety precaution to reduce the skull's diameter for an easier birth, without damaging the fetal brain. After delivery, the baby's head returns to a rounded shape. Eyes have no tear ducts yet, they appear a few weeks after birth. ThoraxChest is more prominent. Lungs begin to increase production of surfactant to keep alveoli open.AbdomenFetal abdomen is large and round mainly due to the liver which is producing red blood cells.SkinLast of vernix usually disappears, but may remain until birth. Skin becomes thicker and paler (white or bluish pink) and each day the fetus gains 1/2 ounce (14 g) of fat.

Pic 12
Fetus now considered full term. ••••• 40 weeksFetal size: weight about 7.5 pounds (3.4kg). Crown-to-rump length about 14.8 to 15.2 inches (37 to 38cm). Total length is 21.5 inches (48cm)Mother's size: From the pubic symphysis to the top of the uterus, measures approximately 14.4 to 16 inches (36 to 40cm). From your bellybutton to the top of your uterus is 6.4 to 8 inches (16 to 20cm).
AbdomenFifteen percent of body is fat, eighty percent of which is underneath the skin, the other twenty percent surrounds the organs. LimbsAt the time of birth, the baby has a total of 300 bones. Some bones will fuse together later, which is why an adult has only 206 bones.AbdomenFetal abdomen is large and round mainly due to the liver which is producing red blood cells.Nervous SystemA fetus can display more than seventy different reflex system behaviors which are automatic and unlearned behaviors necessary for survival.

Final lab
Dog Gizmo: Canis lupus familiaris: symbiotic;they provide companionship
We have been co existing with this type of animal for quite some time.

Dog kisses : Canis lupus familiaris: mutuality… unless youa re tlking about wolves or coyotes then it is predator/ prey. Dogs do contain the virus that may cause strep throat which in turn may cause heart conditions and high fevers. Before the development of antibiotics it was not possible to fight off serious implications that might have taken place if contracting the virus.
Many people I have seen allow their dog to kiss them on the lips and lick them all over so co-existing has been going on for quite some time.
Petting the guinea pig: Cavia porcellus (in the wild) they help in keeping vegitation done to a minium in the areas in which that inhabit. We have co-existed with these little guys for quite some time. They are in the wild and have been domesticated and considered to be a very good first pet for young kids.

Holding a Lizard: Draco volans: symbiotic: Lizards are native to certain areas of the world from the wetlands to the deserts and haven’t been a problem for us yet. Although they do have the possibility to contain what is called salmanilla.

Bird feathers : Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Aves
Bird and the bees have been around for quite some time and co-existing has been moving along. Although recently and presently we are experiencing problems with avian flu. This has taken its toll on many people hospitalizing and even threatening the lives of those who come in contact with it.

Pairie dogs playing in dirt: Cynomys ludovicianus (black-tailed prairie dog)
These little guys were digging holes in a vacant area in Colorado and I noticed that children had even built a fort close to the area where these little guys were taking up residency.

Holding my cat: Felidae: symbiotic
Cats domesticated and farrow have been around for hundreds of years. We have co-existed with them and adapted threw the years. But I have heard of cat scratch fever as well as the little box changing and aromas that are inhaled are not good for pregnant people to be around.

Feeding a Tiger: Panthera tigris : predator/prey
We are co-existing with these great creatures but actually it is not suggested that we jump in their and play with them. When I fed this guy I had to put on latex gloves and wash my hands with sanitizer. So I am not sure if I actually had to wear these gloves to protect me from getting something from them or to prevent me from giving something to the tiger!

Feeding a goldfish: Carassius auratus: symbiotic
The goldfish is domesticated and considered to be a great pet. Algae does grow in the side of the aquarium and the water actually has a tendency to smell. I would not suggest drinking that as a cocktail.

Mistletoe growing on tree: Arceuthobium campylopodum: parasitic
Mistletoe is not harmful to us but it does pose a threat to the trees it preys upon. If the mistletoe is not taken under control then it could lead to the overall destruction to the tree it is living off of.
Dead heading flowering bushes: Magnoliophyta:mutualism: it helps in prolonging the blooming fo these flowers. We do co-exist with many plants and some of which that if ingested may cause illness, death, or joy.

Biting finger nail: Commensal: there are not harmful germs under the nails but after a day in the experiences of life there could be colds, flu, and harmful bacteria that could be found under the nails.

Hummingbird on bush: Trochilidae: mutualism: Hummingbirds are great for our environment they help in spreading pollen from plant to plant. Therefore leading to mreo and more hybrid or populating plants.

Lab 2 Population

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?The high fertility rate country I chose was the United States. The fertility rate was 2 children. Benin was a small country but a high rise in population. Fertility rate of 6.90 and the life expectancy was 50.9

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?Ireland was the country I picked and the fertility rate was 2 children.

3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth? Younger people being born in vast numbers can throw off the number of people that would be able to marry. With people living longer. There leaves a gap. Many kids being born. People living longer might pose a problem as well. Young people having babies and “flooding the market” so to speak.4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people. Lots of middle aged people are vastly populated countries with low fertility rates because there are not as many people being born and the people populating the region of aging. This could be associated with a larger fertility rate during their generation.5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.
Middle aged and older people adjectives
Traditional, educated, involved, mellow, stable, crafty, dog lovers, caring, loving, tired, old-fashioned, and ethical
Younger populated areas:
Reckless, violence, death, rowdy, athletic, energetic, school oriented, friendly, laughter, smiles, and carefree

Ethical Essay

When thinking about who should reproduce and who should not it is a question of personal in nature. It is all a matter of opinion that can not just be decided by the government. In China, they decided that there should be a limit to how many children each family could actually have. This not only aided in reducing the amount of energy used and strain on the country but now the country is in much better shape. Although I understand why it was done. If you are in a sinking ship do you stay on board or begin to identify the problem and fix it? With China they decided to fix the problem and have been reaping the benefits of such restrictions. We live in a society of freedom of speech and it was often thought by Americans that the restrictions placed on people as to how many children they may be able or not be able to produce would be a violation. But if you look at the broader picture population restrictions it is a means to an ends. If the country is struggling to make it work and provide for the people populating it then something needs to be done. This is what is happening in many third world countries and it is not getting them any further ahead of the poverty, sickness, and overwhelming incidents of birth defects and in Africa’s case the out of control epidemic of the AIDS virus. Maybe population regulations or sterilization would be beneficial to those countries. I am not sure if denying monies to those countries would be of assistance if anything it would lead to starvation and absence of medical availabilities would not benefit them in anyway unless death is the answer. We also need to look at our own environment. We are losing farming land due to land developments for subdivisions. We are having water shortages and restrictions for people due to usage and drought reasons. We are one of the largest polluting driven countries in the world and we are all, throughout the world, contributing to the depletion of the rainforest and the ozone layer. We have to look out for our future. Many times we just live in the now but we need to think of our children and the future that they might have. Population restrictions might be the necessary step that is needed in order to get the out of control population growth throughout the world under control. I don’t think that it needs to come down to deciding who is capable of raising a child. Or it needs to go into the background of the person as to whether or not this person should procreate but instead maybe restrictions on the amount of children a person can have might be a consideration. I mean goodness we have some people who have 10 and 12 children. This might have been necessary in the times of ranches and needing the helping hands to aid in the maintenance of the property. In third world countries sterilization has often been brought to the for front as a way of reducing population growth but it is a controversial idea. In talking about population reduction maybe instead of the families benefiting in the number of children they have an alternative to that might be offering stimulus packages for those people who only have 2 children or less. Not making it a requirement but instead an incentive because we are helping the environment. I mean people receive rebates for using solar power on their homes why not extend those to families that are helping to reduce the population growth.

Self Evaluation

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am proud of my ethical essay, compendium reviews and I enjoyed reading the web links.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? I have spend endless hours trying to figure out what in the world is going on with downloading pictures. So I am not happy with not having that on here. I think I could have done better on the final lab with more examples.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I think I should get a B because I don't have my pictures up. I am going to keep on trying so I am thinking maybe an A for effort.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
By not waiting until the last minute to post my posts. I was so excited about having teh work completed and to be done with the course and that quickly turned to aggrevation in an instant because it was not going as planned.

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I loved the chapters on evolution. I think that is very interesting. Fossils and foot steps in teh past always intrigue me.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
I felt like that when I was learning about meiosis and mitosis.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
I liked the way the teacher was just an email away. Although... I felt frustrated because I could have turned in teh information if I had been able to just take it over to him.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? nothing.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
I think this unit made me really stop and reflect and think about about the past and where we might have come from and the future where is the world going to be in 40 years! VERY INTERESTING!

COMPENDIUM REVIEWS & TABLE OF CONTENTS

2008-05-13T17:05:00.000-07:00

Table Of Contents
Reproduction
Chapters 16 & 17
Compendium Review

I. Chromosomes, Cell Division, & Cell Cycle
A. The Cell Cycle
1. Interphase
B. The Chromosomes
1. Chromosomal Condensation
2. Chromatids & Chromosomes
C. Cell Division
1. Mitosis 4 phases
2. Cytokinesis

Cell division plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis and aids the body in repairing damaged tissues and organs. This division in cells is part of the cell’s life cycle of cell cycle. In consists of two parts; interphase and the cell division. During cell division the nucleus and cytoplasm divide and split the cell somewhat equally and this in turn makes two individual cells.
-Interphase is the period of time that displays intense metabolic activity between cell divisions and is divided into three phases; G1 (gap 1), S phase (synthesis phase), and G2 (gap 2).
G1 begins immediately and the cell carries on day-to-day activities. During this phase the cell makes RNA, proteins, and other molecules. S phase is where DNA replicates. After replication, each chromosome in the nucleus of the cell contains two chromatin fibers, or chromatids. The G2 phase is where the mitochondria divide and the precursors of the spindle fibers and the chromosomes begin to condense. This period of time is relatively inactive and is a shorter period of time.
-After interphase is when cell division begins. The cell replicates its organelles and molecules are needed by the two daughter cells. Nuclear division is commonly known as mitosis. Mitosis involves a series of dramatic structural changes in chromosomes. During this process the chromosomes becomes more compact structures clearly visible in ordinary light microscopic preparations.
-The human cell has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs that contain all of the genetic information required to control cellular activity. Chromosomes are described as homogeneous. Homogeneous chromosomes contain genes that control the same inherited traits. Cells that contain the full number of chromosomes (46) are considered to be diploid (two fold) Germ cells (sperm and ovum) are called hapoid because they contain half the chromosomes of the somatic cells. Germ cells are produced by a special kind of cell division known as meiosis.
-Chromosomal condensation happens after replication and it facilitates mitosis usually during prophase. During this the cells begin to coil, compacting in much the same way that a stretched phone cord shortens and compacts when the tension is removed. While the chromosomes are in a condensed state they are inactive and unable to produce either DNA or RNA. Condensation allows chromosomal separation which makes it easier to study them. Chromosomes are arranged by size and other features form a karyotype. It is used to help geneticists count the chromosomes and to locate potential abnormalities. It is especially important to mothers-to-be because it allows for a process to be done called an amniocentesis. The is where the doctor will extract fluid that surrounds the baby through a needle that is inserted through the mother’s abdomen. This fluid contains the baby cells and they can be separated where they are then grown in cultures. They continue to divide and grow. After which a chemical substance is added and that aids in stopping the cell division. Then they are removed from the culture and placed on a glass slide, photographed and analyzed. Then with the help of computer software the chromosomes are arranged in pairs and then looked at to see if there are any obvious defects.
Here are some helpful terminology when talking about chromosomes.
*chromatin is a strand of DNA and associated histones (globular proteins).
*chromatin fibers are strands of chromatin.
*chromosomes consists of one or two chromatin fibers.
*chromatid is one of the chromatin fibers of a replicated chromosome
*centromere is a region of each chromatid to which a sister chromosome is attached.
-The number of chromatids in chromosomes varies depending on the stage of the cell cycle. Each chromosome is made of two chromatids that are held together at the centromere.
-Mitosis is divided into four stages called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
-Prophase begins just after interphase and the replicated chromosomes condense. The nucleoli are regions of active rRNA synthesis. In the cytoplasm, the cell’s centrioles separate. The mitotic spindle forms. The mitotic spindle is an elaborate array of microtubules. It is also responsible for the movement of the chromosomes. Late in prophase the nuclear envelope begins to break down. This permit’s the chromosomal fibers of the mitotic spindle to attach to the chromosomes, setting the stage for the next step, metaphase.
-Before chromosomes can be divided equally, they are lined up in the center of the cell with their centromeres located along the equatorial plane. This aids in the separation of chromatids.
-Anaphase is when the chromatids of each chromosome begin to separate. The chromatids of the homologous chromosomes are drawn toward opposite poles of the mitotic spindle.
-The final stage of cell division is called telophase. This is when the chromosomes complete their migration to the poles. This stage involved a series of changes in the nuclei that are basically the exact opposite of prophase. During telophase, membranes form around the chromosomes of each new (daughter) cell. This phase ends when the nuclei of the daughter cells appear to be in interphase.
-Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm. This is possible by the contraction of the microfilaments beneath the cell membrane. This usually happens in the latter part of anaphase or early in telophase.
-Many factors appear to be a part of the cell cycle from hormones to growth-promoting and growth inhibiting factors. These factors may act directly on the cytoplasm but more likely stimulate changes in the genes in the nucleus that regulate the cell cycle.

Table of Contents

II. Principles of the Human Heredity
A. Meiosis & Gamete Formation
1. Meiosis I
2. Meiosis II
3. Gamete Production
B. Principles of Heredity
1. Blending of Traits
2. Principles of Segregation
3. Dominant and Recessive Genes
4. Principle of Independent Assortment
C. Mendelian Genetics in Humans
1. Autosomoal-Recessive Traits
2. Autosomal-Dominant Traits
D. Variations in Mendelian Genetics
1. Incomplete Dominance
2. Multiple Alleles
3. Polygenic Inheritance
4. Crossing Over
5. Human Genome Project
E. Sex-Linked Genes
1. Sex-Influenced Genes
F. Chromosomal Abnormalities & genetic Counseling
1. Defects in Chromosomal Structure
2. Genetic Screening

During gamete formation, germ cells, undergo a special kind of division called meiosis, which reduces the number of chromosomes in half.
-Meiosis I has the same four steps as mitosis; prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
During prohase I, the chromosomes condese and the homogeneous chromosomes pair up.
During metaphase I homogeneous pairs line up in the equatorial plate.
During anaphase I the pairs separate with one member of the pair each going to each daughter cell. Each daughter cell ends up with half the number of chromosomes (23) of parent cells (46) Each chromosome contains two chromatids and since the chromosomes decrease in half while going through this process it is called reduction division.
-Mitosis II is like mitosis in many ways and this is the second cell division. The cells start out as haploid. The chromosomes of haploid cells condense during prophase II. Chromosomes disassociate during anaphase II and go to each pole.
-Gamete production in males meiosis produces four gametes, in females it produces only one. The diploid cell in the gamete-producing organ, the testis gives rise to four sperm cells. The single diploid cell gives rise to only one gamete the egg or the ovum.
-Much of the work in the early knowledge on heredity came from the work of Gregor Mendel.
-Blending of traits was first discovered by Mendel. When the traits he studied did not blend.
-When talking about the principles of segregation the parents contribute equally to the characteristics of their offspring. The gametes of the parents combine to produce an offspring and because each gamete contains one hereditary factor for each trait. Mendel also concluded that the contributions of the parents are equal.
-Mendel also figured out that either plants are recessive or dominant. A recessive factor is expressed only when the dominant factor is missing. An alternative form of the same gene is called an allele.
-Independent assortment principles say that genes on different chromosomes segregate independently during gamete formation.
-Autosomal-recessive traits are expressed only when both the alleles are recessive. Sex chromosomes are needed in determining the sex of the baby to be born.
-Albinism is one of the most common genetic defects known to science. Melanin is the brown pigment responsible in the coloration of the eyes, skin, and hair. The skin in an albino is pale and the hair is white. It is easier for the skin to be sunburned.
-Cystic fibrosis is an autonomic-recessive disease that leads to early death. Over time the pancreas begin to degenerate and fibrosis tissue replaces glandular tissue. The respiratory system of victims of cystic fibrosis produce copious amounts of mucus. It is also one of the most common genetic diseases.
-Autosomal-dominant traits are present in every one of us.
Incomplete dominance results in a kind of blending of traits. Incomplete dominance occurs in many human disorders and one being sickle cell disease. This disease effects the blood and affects mostly African Americans. By having this disease it does make them immune to the HIV virus. Which I think it very interesting.
-Some genes have multiple alleles. There are four possible blood types; A, B, AB, & O.
-Some traits are determined by more then one gene pair. Skin color is controlled by as many as 8 genes. This type of inheritance is called polygenic inheritance. It is also responsible for height, weight, intelligence, and many behavioral traits.
-Crossing over is a genetic swapping that occurs in meiosis. Those genes that are located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together and are said to be linked. Crossing-over can occur anywhere along the length of the chromosome.
-Human genome project I find very interesting. It seeks to determine the sequence of bases in human DNA and the location of all of the genes. It started in 1991.
-Sex linked genes can determine baldness and women carry the gene that dominants in supplying that gene.
-Abnormal chromosome numbers generally result from a failure of chromosomes to separate during gamete production.
-One of the most common triomies is down syndrome. One out of every 700 babies born in the US has down syndrome.
-Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes can occur in both autosomes and sex chromosomes. Klinefelter syndrome occurs when an ovum with an extra X chromosome is fertilized by a y bearing sperm resulting in a XXY genotype.
-Genetic disorders may also result from variations in chromosome structure. Deletions which are a loss of a piece of chromosome. Translocations which is breakage and reattachment somewhere else.
-Genetic screening allows parents to determine whether they will have a genetically normal baby. Amniocentesis is usually recommended only if one or more of the following conditions are met
1) a woman that is over 25
2) she has already delivered a baby with a genetic defect
3) she is a carrier of an X-linked genetic disorder
4) she or the father has a known chromosomal or genetic abnormality

Human Development & Aging
Chpt 22

Table of Contents

I. Fertilization
1. Passage of female reproductive tract
Sperm mobility and penetration
2. Zygote formation
II. Pre-embryonic development
1. Implantation
2. Ectopic pregnancy
3. Placental hormones
4. Amnion
III. Embryonic Development
IV. Fetal development
1. Fetal Circulatory
V. Birth Defects
VI. Child Birth and Lactation
1. Stages of birth
2. Lactation
VII. Aging and Death
1. Decline of cell numbers and functions
2. Death

-The sperm and the egg of humans unite during fertilization. This usually takes place in the upper third of the uterine tube. Sperm is deposited in the vagina and it reaches the site of fertilization by swimming. Muscle contractions also aids in the wall of the uterine tube and uterus and it pushes the sperm on its way.
Sperm dissolve away the cells surrounding the oocyte and then they bore through the zona pellucida and the contact the plasma membrane. The first one to contact the membrane fertilizes the oocyte. Further sperm penetration is blocked. The chromosomes of the sperm and oocyte duplicate and merge in the center of the cell, where mitosis begins.
Human development is divided into three stages: pre-embryonic, embryonic, and fetal.
-During pre-embryonic development the zygote undergoes rapid cellular division forming a morula. The morula is then converted into a blastula, a structure with a hollow cavity, called a blastocyst in humans. The blastcyst consists of a clump of cells. The inner cell mass (ICM) becomes and embryo and the trophoblast gives rise to the embryonic portion of the placenta.
While the placenta is forming a layer of cells form the ICM of the blast cyst separates from it and forms an amnion. The amnion fills with fluid and enlarges during embryonic and fetal development, eventually surrounding the entire embryo and fetus protecting them during development.
-The ICM separates into three germ cell layers; ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. The formation of the three primary germ layers marks the beginning of the embryonic development. The organs develop from these three primary tissues during organogenesis.
-Fetal development begins at 8 weeks after fertilization and is primarily a period of fetal growth because most of the organ systems have developed or are under development.
The placenta produces several hormones that play an important role in reproduction. HCG maintains the corpus luteum during pregnancy. Progesterone and estrogen stimulate uterine growth and the development of the glands and the ducts of the breasts. The placenta delivers oxygen and nutrients to the fetal blood nd removes waste products from it.
-The fetal circulatory system is very much like th adult circulatory system, except that it contains three pathways that allow blood to bypass the lungs and liver, which are developing but not functioning. At birth these bypasses close up and the adult pattern of circulation develops.
-Birth defects arise from chemical, biological, and physical agents. The effects of these agents is related to the time of exposure, the nature of the agent, and the dose. A defect is most likely to arise if a woman is exposed during an embryonic period when the organs are forming.
-Labor consists of intense and frequent uterine contractions believed to be caused by the release of small amounts of fetal oxytocin prior to birth. Fetal oxytocin stimulates the release of prostaglandins by the placenta. Oxytocin and prostaglandins stimulate contractions in the sensitized uterine musculature.
-Maternal osytocin is also released, augmenting muscle contractions. As uterine contractions increase, they cause more maternal oxytocin to be released, which stimulates stronger contractions and more oxytocin release, a positive feedback that continues until the baby is born. Labor consists of dilation, expulsion, and placental stages. The breast consist primarily of fat and connective tissue interspersed with milk-producing glandular tissue and ducts. During pregnancy, the glands and ducts proliferate under the influence of placental and ovarian estrogen and progesterone.
-Milk production is induced by maternal prolactin. Before milk begins, the breast produce a small quantities of a protein-rich fluid called colostrum. The baby usually consumes the fluid and it enriches their bodies as well as aiding in building up their immune system.
-Aging is a progressive deterioration of the body’s homeostatic abilities and the gradual deterioration of the function of the body’s organs. These changes result in at least two of the factors; a decrease in the number of cells in the organs and a decline in the function of existing cells. Death is the result.

Human Evolution
Chpt 23
Compendium review
I. The Evolution of Life
1. Chemical evolution
2. First cells and Eukaryotes
II. How Evolution Works
1. Natural Selection, Genetic Variation
III. Evidence Supporting Evolution
1. Fossils
2. Biochemical Similarities
IV. Early primate Evolution
V. Evolution of Australopithecines
VI. Evolution of Genes Homo
1. Human races

Scientists believe that the Earth and the sun and the rest of the system came from and enormous cloud of cosmic dust and gas that gave rise to the Earth and the sun. The Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
-The evolution of life probably began in the sea and is divided into 3 phases: chemical evolution, cellular evolution, and the evolution of the multicultural organisms.
-Chemical evolutions scientists think that about 4 billion years ago. Simple inorganic chemicals that were dissolved in the seas combined to form small organic molecules. Over time, the organic molecules combine to form polymers, small proteins and nucleic acids. These polymers combined to from aggregates that may have been the precursors of cells.
-The first few cells arose from the primitive aggregates. They contained primitive enzymes and simple genes and may have derived nourishment from organic molecules they absorbed from the environment.
-Over time scientists believed that photosynthesis envolved further and the new photosynthetic organisms began to produce oxygen.
-Prokaryotes emerged in about 3.5 billion years ago. Eukaryotes evolved about 1.2 billion years ago. The evolution of the eukaryotes opened the door for the evolution of multicultural organisms.
-A variety of multicultural plants and animals evolved from the single celled eukaryotes in the oceans. The ozone layer developed and life on land became possible.
-Evolution has produced a great diversity of organisms. Evolution takes place because of the genetic variation and natural selection. Genetic variation in a species arises from many factors such as mutations and from new genetic combinations resulting from sexual reproduction. Genetic variations in traits that may offer some organisms an advantage over others, giving them a better chance of surviving, reproducing, and passing the genes on to future generations. Beneficial traits are preserved in a population by natural selection.
-The scientific knowledge in support of evolution is rich and varied. The fossil record, anatomical similarities in groups of organisms, the common biochemical makeup of organisms, similar embryological development among many groups of organisms. The experimental evidence all support the theory of evolution by natural selection.
-When talking about early primate evolution humans belong to this order. Primates are characterized by grasping hands, forward-looking eyes and large brains.
*Timeline*
Based on fossil evidence it appears that the primates evolved from a mammalian insectivore that resembled the modern-day tree shrew and lived about 80 million years ago. They think that humans evolved from early apelike creatures.
-The first human primate belonged to the genus Australopithecus. The oldest known skeleton was unearthed in Africa 3.5 million years old. It belongs to the group Australopithecus afarensis. It stood about 3 ft tall and its brain was just slightly bigger then an ape’s but they were thinking that it probably walked erect.
-3 million years ago A. afarensis was replaced by other species A. africanus which was slightly taller and it had even a bigger brain.
-2.3 million years ago A. robustus emerged. It was taller and heavier and had an even larger brain.
-2.2 million years ago the forth species emerged and it was called A. boisei.
-Many paleontologists believe that A. afarensis also gave rise to the genus Homo, and ancestors of the modern humans. Homo sapiens. Some people still think that it might had emerged from another ancestor all together. The earliest discovery of a human skull was 1.8 million years ago in Tanzania. It belonged to the homo habilis.
-200,000 years ago after the emergence of homo habilis the homo erectus arose. Homo erectus unlike it predecessors that remained in Africa these guys moved to Europe and Asia. They stood about 5 ft tall and used fire and many different kinds of tools but their brains smaller than ours and we are believed to have some from them directly.
-Homo sapiens emerged about 300,000 years ago and consisted of two subspecies: homo sapiens neanderthalensis and homo sapiens sapiens.
-The Neanderthals lived in caves and camps in Europe and Asia approximately 40,000 years ago. Some archaeologists believe that they were replaced by modern humans, the CroMagnons and earliest members of the homo sapiens sapiens. The Cro-magnons first appeared in Africa and then spread across Europe and Northern Asia and wiped out the Neanderthals or maybe even copulating with them.
-Other the course of many years, the human population moved and went far and wide. They inhabited many climate changes and became very good at adapting and overcoming the various complications that arose. With these travels the formation of different cultures began to form. Many adaptations that make up the different races are thought ot have happened due to the races and different population groups adapting to the environment.

Table of Contents
Ecology & the Environment
Chpt 24

I. Introduction to the Ecosystems
1. Biosphere
2. Biomes & Aquatic Life Zones
II. Ecosystem Function
1. Producers & Food Chains
2. Energy & Nutrient Flows
3. Trophic Levels
4. Nutrient Cycles
III. Overshooting the Earth’s Carrying Capacity
1. Polution
2. Resources
IV. Overpopulation: Problems and Solutions
V. Resource Depletion
1. Forest, Soil, & Water
VI. Pollution
1. Global Warming and its Impacts
2. Ozone layer

Humans survival is dependent on the resources that surround us today. It is vital to keep these resources available and not to exhaust them otherwise we could face extinction ourselves. Ecology is the study of ecosystems. It is the examination of organisms and their environment and many of the interactions between them. The living skin of the planet is called the biosphere. It goes from the bottoms of the oceans to the tippy top of the highest mountains. The only thing that is necessary for this process to take place is the addition of sunlight. Too much sun and heat can be detrimental to plants and animals as well as not enough sun. It is a proper balance between the environment and the dependency of sunlight.
-The biosphere is a closed system in which materials are recycled over and over again. I have heard this referred to as the circle of life. The Earth;s surface is divided into large biomes eah with a characteristic climate and characteristic to plant and animal life. The ocean is referred to as a biological region known as the aquatic life zones.
-The ecosystem consists of a community of organisms, its environments, and their interactions.A group of organisms with the same species living in a specific region constitutes a population. If you have two or more populations occupying a region it is called a community. The area that a species being human or animal is called a habitat. A Species’ niche is made up of its habitat and where they are on the ladder of the food chain.
-Virtually all life on Earth depends on plants and other producers, organisms that synthesize organic materials from sunlight, carry carbon dioxide, and water via photosynthesis. Organisms depending on producers for food are called consumers. Four types of consumers are present and they are herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and detrivores.
-When talking about the food chain we are all a part of it.
The food chains begin at plants that are consumed by grazers (herbivores) and this is called the grazer food chain. Those that feed off of dead organisms or wastes are a part of the decomposer food chain. The position where an organism is located on the food chain is called the trophic level.
Nutrients are necessary for life growth and for life to flow through the nutrient cycles.
-The term secession refers to a series of changes in the ecosystem in which one community replaces another until a mature ecosystem is produced. Primary succession is where a community previously existed. Secondary succession occurs where a community was destroyed by natural or human events. I thought of Pompay.
-Although environmental problems vary from one nation to another they are all the result of human populations exceeding the carrying capacity of the environment. Carrying capacity is the number of organisms an ecosystem can support indefinitely and is determined by food and resource supplies and by the capacity of the environment to assimilate or destroy waste products of organisms.
Overpopulation occurs anytime a population exceeds it carrying capacity. This can be by looking at the food ratios available lack of resources, and excessive pollution. It can be all three or even one of the three that could be harmful.
-When talking huge numbers of population growth I think of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Resource shortages and food depletion are the main concerns or problems in this area. Many experts believe that industrialized areas are overpopulated . I thought of New York when immigrants were flooding the area and there were extreme pollutants and sickness due to the inhumane ways of discarding wastes and such. It was industrial and it suffered.
-Human population can be sumed up in 6 words; too many people, reproducing too rapidly, which results in resource shortages, excessive pollution, and poverty.
Resource depletion is a huge problem and concern. Humans use renewable and nonrenewable resources and all of which are depleting. Forest are being cut down faster then they can be replaced. That is why bamboo is a great option for building and such because it grows at a rapid rate. There are many things we can do to help in the environmental problems… GO green! Recycle, plant trees, soil conservation, population control, and drive energy efficient cars but there are many other stategies that need to be implemented in order for it to work or help! The soils are being eroded from rangeland and farmland. The effects of this will be food production later down the road. Many areas in the world suffer from water shortages. With the rise in population this will get far worse before it gets better. I saw on the news the other day about huge sin holes that were evident because of the underground streams being used and causing the ground to give out.
-Oil supplies are also finite. Global oil is expected to peak between the years of 2004 and 2010. Production may not be able to meet demand. An alternative to this catastrophy would be to use renewable fuels, and a sustainable energy supply.
-Pollution from human activities is overwhelming and it has a huge strain on the nutrient cycles and assisting is destroying homeostasis. One of the most serious threats of pollution is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere. This increases the planet's surface temperature, altering this climate, shifting the rainfall patterns and agricultural zones, flooding low lying regions and destroying many species that cannot adapt to the sudden change in temperature. To slow the effects of global warming scientists recommend massive reforestation projects and dramatic improvements in the efficiency of the fossil-fuel combustion and development of alternative fuels. There are two gases that are the gaseous pollutants ans they are sulfur dioxide and nitrogent dioxide and they are released from power plants, factories, automobiles, and other sources.
-The ozone layer encircles the Earth, trapping unltraviolet light. It is being destroyed by CFC's and other pollutants.

More Information about the Muscles & Pictures

2008-04-14T15:52:00.000-07:00

The attachment of myosin to actin molecules is stimulated by the release of calcium inside the muscle cells. ATP in the muscle provides energy needed to pull the actin filaments inward.
**KEY terms**
Actin are contractile filaments made of protein and found in the cytoskeleton.
Myofibrils are bundles of contractile myofilaments in the skeletal muscle cells.
Myosin is a protein filament found in many cells in the microfilamentous network also in muscle cells.
Sarcomeres are functional units of the muscle cells and ti consists of myosin, actin, and myofilaments.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of teh skeletal muscle fiber is responsible for storing and releasing calcium ions that are absolutely necessary for muscle contractions.
Schwann cell is a neuroglial cell or supportive cell in the nervous system and it is responsible to the myelin sheath.
Each of the pictures below show the important breakdown levels of a muscles in the body. From the muscle fibers to the cross bridging for contraction. I couldn't get this to post with the rest of the pictures or otherwise they would have been noted under each picture.
When thinking about muscles working together to move an arm, leg, or move the lips to talk I find it amazing. The process that takes place in order to see it happen and how quickly these impulses are processed. It is not as simple as my brain telling my arm to move but it goes much deeper then that. It requires nerve impulses, actin and myosin filaments working together with the proper mixture of ingredients to spark the necessary energies to stimulate muscle contractions. I found it completely amazing to learn the ins and outs of muscles and how they enable us to move our body parts and positions.

Limb, Neurons, Muscles Lab

2008-04-13T20:40:00.001-07:00

Okay so below in the first few pictures is the arm. We were asked to make with an arm with things that we found around the house. Necessity is the mother of invention and that is exactly what you will see going on here.

**Directions on the making of the arm**

1) I took the two bones radius and ulna (knitting needles red and gold) and wired them together
2)Ran a long wire along the side of them.
3)Then took a bit of duct tape and crinkled it into a ball more flattened for the joint or connection area between the bones.
4) Got the silver knitting needle (humerus) and connected them together with wire and alittle bit of tape.
5) Extended the wire along side the humerus this acted as the muscle and my hand was the nerve impulses.
6) Pulled the wire and it made the arm move
7) Oh and artificial arms are not my specialty... haha.
These are the things that I used to make my mechanical arm. A paper hand cut out. Duct tape for the joint. Wire for the muscle movement. Tape to hold it in place. the knitting needles were used for the bones. This was kind of challenging but lots of fun!

The picture below is of the arm fully extended.
The picture below is of the arm moving to a waving position.

The picture below is of the hand in an upright position. "HEY!!!" The hand was able to move by pulling on the wire that I had running from the hand along side the bones (radius and ulna the red and gold knitting needles) and through the joint along side the humerus (silver knitting needle).

Below is a picture of the upper skeletal body of a human. If you could just focus on the arm that is what I did my lab on. If you look to the left hand side of the diagram you can see the arm that I made form ordinary house hold items. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm

Next we had to make a neuron and its parts. So this is how I did that. The picture in the center is actually what it is suppose to look like. Remember without these little guys we would not be able to move arms, legs, or joints. A neuron is a highly specialized cell that generates and transmits nerve impulses from one part of the body to another. Pretty amazing!

**Key terms**

Synapse is the juncture of two neurons that allows an impulse to travel from one neuron to the next.

Synaptic cleft is a gap between an axon and the dentrite or effector it supplies (muslces or glands)

Receptors are structures that respond to internal or external changes. There are three types of receptors in the body; encapsulated, nonecapsulated (naked nerve endings), and specialized ( like the retina).

Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that are released from the terminal ends of axons when a nerve impulse arrives. This either stimulates or henders the next neuron.

**Supplies and their names or symbolism**

I used color paper cut outs, beads for the neurotransmitters, yarn for the microtubules, wire for the receptors, and hole punches with beads for the synapse vesicles for the different parts.
Below is a picture of synapse.

**Some more key terms**

Dentrites are short highly branched fiber that carries impulses to the nerve of the cell body.

Axon is a long unbranched process attached to the nerve cell body of the neuron that transports nerve impulses away for the cell body.

Myelin sheath is layer of fatty material coating the axons of many neurons in the central and peripheral nervous system.

Node of Ranvier is a small gap in the myelin sheath of an axon it is located between segments formed by schwann cells.

**Picture an supplies and their parts**

The picture above shows an actual neuron. The black dot in the center is actually a big magnet, the nucleus and all the parts surrounding it are the same as what is in a cell microtubules, mitochondria, ribosomes etc... Where the green contruction paper meets with the red is the area of synapse. The red branches are the dentrites. Notice the node of Ranvier and each blue gray piece that is separating it is the myelin sheath and at the end of that "tail" is the axon terminal.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Complete_neuron_cell_diagram.svg _neuron_cell_diagram.svg

The picture below is that of a muscle and how it is broken down. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Skeletal_muscle.jpg

Eating N Exercising Working 2gether!

2008-04-13T17:44:00.000-07:00

Exercise and eating healthy should go hand in hand. Eating is apart of our daily lives it is necessary to survive and prosper in life. Food is the sustenance that people consume to fill the voids that they might be having in life. For some it consumes them and for others it burdens them. The same thing goes for individual weight gain or loss. We can sit and blame the environment that we have worked so hard to build or the availability for low cost high fat foods but the bottom line is that everyone is in control of what they are consuming whether that is good or bad. I think there are many contributing factors when it comes to weight gain and obesity in America’s society today everything from the dollar menu to the celebration of the good and bad times in the workplace or home life. I don’t think that people want to be unhealthy, after all, there are many people, that each year, have a New year’s resolution that consists of either exercising more, losing weight and/ or to quit smoking, all of which, are along the thought process of getting healthier. I think that the failure to follow through and continue this path of positive thinking is the fact that it is often times too hard to stick to the regimented restrictions. I don’t think that we wake up everyday planning to fail. As a society we are over worked and underpaid. Too tired to take a after dinner stroll or be bothered with prepping the best home cooked meal out of one of those quick and easy cookbooks. It is too easy to pick up drive thru or have something delivered hot and ready to eat. Exercising is the last thing on the check list to do after working all day and doing the whole “parent thing.” We all want to take time for ourselves and relax on the couch. Maybe sip a bit of the liquid relaxer, pop in a movie, or get a few extra zzz‘s. Often times then not you will hear from people who don‘t exercise that they, “don‘t have time for it.” I am not sure if it is they don’t have time for it or if they don’t want to make time for it. What we want and what we need are two different scenerios. A lack of exercise is probably one of the main contributing factors when it comes to thinking about obesity but also food choices are the next. I think another reason for obesity in America today might be the idea that in order to lose weight we have to be on a stringent diet and not only are we torturing ourselves with the idea of exercise and sweat but then we are having our comfort foods taken away at the same time. Many people spend thousands and thousands of dollars on supplements, weight loss videos, appetite suppressants, and gym memberships only to fall short with few lastly results. Exercising for some people is not the number one priority. But unfortunately, it is something that we might need to focus on. Our children look to their parents, family and friends for good role models and examples. So I am sure that the Big Mac with super-sized fries might put a smile on the face of the one buying and eating it but it is frowned upon by our bodies and that is what is paying the price. Paying less for the purchase now but more for it later. Our children are like sponges soaking in all that we do so if we are not exercising or eating right chances are they are not eating doing either. I have noticed that more sports are available for kids in the younger levels. Also, at the schools in this area, at least in the lower levels, they have a weekly walks called “aces” and then kids always look forward to that day. My other son in middle school also has to have two semesters of PE so I am sure that helps in trying to keep kids physically fit. Granted this could be the only exercise that may be getting all day or for the week but at least it is an improvement. I am not sure what is going to jump start America into the idea that healthier is better but harping exercise is obviously not doing it. We know exercise is good for us and that we have to eat all our vegetables to be healthy that is a given. Maybe we need to get our personal lives in order first and prioritize what is important and feed that need before we start feeding anything else. I think that a lack of exercise, an increase in unhappiness and stress are what is contributing to the obesity in today’s America. If you get us our own personal chefs and trainers then we could all be healthy looking like the lastest and greatest of “Muscle and Fitness” models on the front magazine covers.

Show me Your Muscles!

2008-04-11T22:42:00.000-07:00

SHOW ME YOUR MUSCLES
This lab has to do with muscle contractions and how fatigue and temperature can effect them. The skeletal muscles are a complex system of coordinated reflexes, constrictions, and neurological impulses. It is something that I take for granted but this lab made me think differently.

MATERIALS:
dishpan of water
narrow strip of paper which will fit around upper arm
ice or snow ( I used ice)
rubber ball & clothespin
timer (stop watch)

Fist Clenching

The above picture is me squeezing the ball.

Temperature # of times
Normal 51
Cold 28

The cold temperature of the water caused my hand to stiffen and almost feel numb. It caused my hand to discolor to a really red color. Goodness I did not do well with the cold water.
Stinkin Freezing

Repetitive Muscle Actions

# of Apts___# of secs___# of sqs ball___# of sqs clothes pin
1______________ 20__________49_____________44
2______________ 40__________47_____________44
3______________ 60__________47_____________43
4______________ 80__________46_____________42
5______________ 100_________46_____________42
6______________ 120_________44_____________42
7______________ 140_________42_____________ 41
8______________ 160_________42_____________ 39
9______________ 180_________41_____________ 38

**KEY**

# of apts: number of attempts

# of sqs balls: number of squeezes of ball

# of sqs clothes pins: number of squeezes of clothes pin

While I was doing this test of repetitive muscles reactions my arm began to get sore. I thought that it would tense up in the bicep area but also in my forearm as well. Even my fingers were tired. It seemed to warm up a bit as well.

Another portion of the lab is the part that asks us to place our fingers on our jaw line and see what happens. Place two fingers on the jaw just a bit from the ear and grit your teeth together. When the teeth are not clenched tight the muscle feels normal but when the teeth are gritted together BAM…the muscle pops out. So after doing his part of the lab I went and ate dinner. I felt the same muscles in that area and noticed that it does that every time I chew.

The paper strip that was put around my arm was interesting. I did not have much change in my circumferences though.
Relaxed it was about 15.25 inches
Squeezing my fist it was 15.50 inches
Flexing my Popeye muscle it was about 16 inches
Me flexing! GRRR!

The picture below is of the strip with the measurements of the initial circumference, then after squeezing fist and then flexing.

Okay, so in the picture below you can see me measuring with my thumb and pinkie. The muscle in my arm seemed to be relaxed when the arm was stretched out straight. But once I flexed my muscle it popped up slightly and the muscle was not as stretched out as far.
Before

After

Muscle fibers contain small bundles of contractile filaments. The thick filaments of two proteins myosin and actin. Calcium is released and it stimulates the myosin molecules to the actin molecules and in turn these two work together to cause muscle constriction to take place and then ATP steps in and provides the necessary energy to make it all happen. Nerve impulses are generated in the muscle cells. When the temperature is lowered it inhibits the muscles to properly move at the same speed as they normally would and blood flow is reduced. When the muscles are repetitively used they have a tendency to tire out but with regular exercise they can build endurance which would enable to muscles go for longer.
I was actually surprised at how the water temperature effected my muscles mobility. I would not have thought it would have had such an impact on my endurance levels and abilities.

Leech Lab!

2008-04-11T17:22:00.000-07:00

During this lab a leech is used to help us better understand the electrical activities of neurons when we used different stimuli and attach them to the skin. Then dyes are injected into the neurons so that we can better see what they look like and how they respond. With a picture of the steps it gives you a better idea of what was being done during the lab.

*Here are the tools that were used in the experiment*

Feather: Used to give the leech skin a very gentle touch stimulation. It really doesn't need to be a feather, it could be q-tips or something.

Probe: A blunt metal rod attached to a wooden handle useful for lifting, pushing, pressing, moving of specimen. Here you use it to lift tissue, and to push the skin as a stimulus.

Forceps: Fine forceps for very fine manipulations.

Scissors: Good dissecting angled scissors used here to cut open the body wall.

Pins: Stainless steel dissecting pins for pinning tissue to a dissecting dish or board.

Scalpel: For microsurgery, disposable scalpel blades are better and much more economical than the fixed blade scalpel which needs to be sharpened periodically.

Dissection Tray: A tray half-filled with hard wax so that you can stick pins into it to stabilize specimen for dissection.

Leech Tank: Leeches are kept in pond-water (you can actually buy an instant pond-water mix to add to tap water.) If kept in a refrigerator, they can stay happy in it for weeks at a time without feeding.

20% Ethanol: Used to anesthetize the leech. Besides being more humane, it has the added benefit that it stops them from moving, making it easier to pin down the leech.

Leech Tongs: These are basically gross anatomy forceps with blunt tips so that you will not harm the leech as you pick it up.

Dissection Microscope: These are binocular microscopes specifically designed for dissection and other micromanipulations. Essentially, it's a high quality high power magnifying glass. You can clearly see individual cells in a leech's nervous system.

Micromanipulator: A device used to position items with sub-micrometer precision in three dimensions. Here we mount our electrode on it to guide it accurately to a neuron.

Oscilloscope: Basically a sophisticated voltmeter. What you see on the screen is a real time display of voltage (vertical) plotted against time (horizontal). Useful because voltmeters can't track rapidly changing voltages, and even if they could, you couldn't read anything.

Leech: Medicinal leeches are when they are fully extended, they can reach 15 to 20 cm long. When fully contracted, diameter is roughly 1 ~ 2 cm.

*Definitions of terms*

Action Potential: Also known as nerve impulse or spike. One generally talks about a cell "firing" or "generating" an action potential, or simply "spiking." An action potential is a brief change in membrane potential caused by the rapid opening and closing of transmembrane channels that pass specific ions through. Action potentials travel along axons and transfer information over distance. In this virtual lab, action potentials are generated in many of the cells you can find and appear as an almost vertical line superimposed on a horizontal oscilloscope trace. The total number and the rate of firing of action potentials can encode information, as well as the actual shape of the action potential (some are longer lasting than others, as you can see in the lab).

Amplifier: The amplifier stage is omitted in the virtual lab to simplify the controls, but in reality, between the electrode and the oscilloscope, there will be a special amplifier that costs between $500 to $8,000. This amplifier is designed to specifically deal with an electrode that is very high in electrical resistance, but that's another story.

Anterior: A general anatomical orientation term that means towards the front, which is usually defined as the head of the animal. It can be used as "anterior sucker," meaning the forward sucker, or "The brain is anterior to the gut," meaning the brain is toward the front when compared to the gut.

Opposite to posterior.Axon: A type of a thin tube extending from the cell body of a neurons. Axons are distinguished by their specialization to conduct nerve impulses for long distances, normally in a direction away from the cell body. We say "normally" because it's not always the case. In the touch sensitive cells encountered in this virtual lab, the cell bodies are located in the ganglion, but the action potentials are initiated in the body wall and travel towards the cell body. Also, a neuron can have more than one axon. Again, in our touch sensitive cells, there are axons that disappear from the field of view towards the left and right, in the direction of neighboring ganglia. These axons conduct the touch information to different parts of the nervous system, away from the cell body. Brain: The brain of the leech is a rather simple affair. It is essentially a set of specialized ganglia that have fused to become bigger.

Dendrite: A type of thin tube extending from the cell body of a neuron. Dendrites are specialized to receive information from other neurons, and they do not usually conduct action potentials. In the cells featured in this lab, examples of dendrites can be seen as many finer branches near the center of the ganglion. Dendrites do not transmit information for very long distances, but are instead involved in processing the information they receive from other neurons.

Dorsal: Another anatomical orientation term that means towards the top, e.g. "dorsal fin of sharks." In most animals, the top will be the animal's back. It gets a bit complicated in humans and other bipeds because we move perpendicularly to the axis defined by our backs. Opposite to ventral.

Electrode: Electrodes are what you use here to record the activity of the neurons. The generic term "electrode" is defined as a conductor that is used to establish electrical contact with a nonmetallic substance. So an electrode is what one uses to deliver electric shock to the patient's head in electroshock therapy or to the patient's heart in the emergency room. A glass microelectrode is used in our experiment.

Electrolyte: Ionic solution that conducts electricity. Typically, it's created by dissolving some salt. It is used in the real version of our experiment to fill up the glass micorelectrode. The choice of salt and the techniques developed to fill up the electrode are themselves interesting topics, but a little too esoteric perhaps for this lab.

Electrophysiology: The study of life processes and of the physical and chemical processes involved, particularly the electrical aspects.

Fluorescent Dye: A chemical that emits light when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation from another source. It is often used in neurobiology to view one or a selected number of neurons. The problem is that neurons are usually transparent (unless you are studying the gorgeously colored brain of some sea-slugs). This makes them hard to see. The neurons are also usually packed tightly together, which makes them almost impossible to see individually. Scientists have developed a bag of tricks to overcome this problem, and one of these tricks is to inject (or somehow stain) the neurons with fluorescent dyes. By illuminating the neurons with certain frequencies of light or near-light, the dye "lights up," making the study of their shapes and identities.

Ganglion (pl ganglia): A ganglion is a collection of neuronal cell bodies. In the leech, the central nervous system consists of the brain and 21 segmental ganglia connected by the ventral nerve cord. Each ganglion contains 350 neurons, of which 14 respond to touch and pressure.

Lucifer Yellow: A florescent dye that was introduced in 1978. It is based on the chemical luciferin discovered in 1888 that is present in luminescent organisms such as fireflies. It has proven to be a fiendishly useful product with many applications. In this experiment, it is used in a dissolved form and injected into a neuron, but it has also been used with good effect for immunohistochemistry. Lucifer Yellow fluoresces with bright yellow-green color when stimulated with ultraviolet (wavelength 280 nm) or blue (wavelength 430 nm) light. Because of this, to view the fluorescence, you need an expensive halogen or mercury high-pressure lamp and appropriate filters to block out UV, which can damage your eye.

Microelectrode: An electrode that is very very small. It can be made from a coated tungsten metal or other metal under special fabrication techniques, but in this lab, we use a glass microelectrode. A glass microelectrode is made with a specialized "electrode puller" that heats up the middle of a fine glass tube (usually about 1 mm diameter and about 10 cm in length) and pulls two ends of it apart at high velocity with or without rapid cooling. The result is two electrodes, each with a very fine tip, down to smaller than 0.1 µm depending on the settings on the machine.

Morphology: The form and structure of an organism or any of its parts. Here it is the shape of the neuron. It also refers to the branch of biology that deals in such matters.

Nerve Cord: This is basically a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the ganglia located in each segment to one another and to the brain. In the leech, the nerve cord is located ventrally. It is the leech equivalent of the human spinal cord.

Neuroanatomy: The study of the anatomy of neurons or the nervous system.

Neuron: A nerve cell.

Neurophysiology: A study of the physical and chemical processes of neurons.

Posterior: Opposite to anterior at the rear. Resting Potential: The voltage of a cell at rest.

Segment: The leech is a segmental animal like a caterpillar or an earthworm. Its body is made up of repeating similar units.

Sinus: The circulation system of the leech is a little bizarre. I mean who's ever heard of an animal that sticks its nervous system inside itse blood vessels?? Yet that's exactly how it is. The ventral sinus of the leech is made of a tough fibrous material that appears dark green.

Skin: For convenience, we sometimes use the term "skin" in this lab. But the proper term is "body wall," which is a heavily muscled structure that allows the leech to extend or contract at will.

Ventral: Opposite to dorsal at the bottom.

*Questions from lab*

1. What is the electrode measuring?

Electrodes are what you use here to record the activity of the neurons. The generic term "electrode" is defined as a conductor that is used to establish electrical contact with a nonmetallic substance.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?

Leeches belong to the phylum annelida (worm). The nervous system of the leech consists of the brain, the ventral nerve cord, and ganglia that are located in each segment along the nerve cord. The medicinal leech has 21 segmental ganglia, each containing 175 pairs of neurons. The relatively small number and the large size of the neurons have made leeches favorite subjects of neurobiologists. Most people don’t really care about what happens with a leech and they their neurons are easily accessible.

3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron.

A sensory neuron by definition is are unipolar nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for converting external stimuli from the organism's environment into internal electrical motor reflex loops and several forms of involuntary behavior, including pain avoidance. In humans, such reflex circuits are commonly located in the spinal cord. Below is a picture of a sensory neuron and its parts. In vertebrates, the term motor neuron classically applies to neurons located in the central nervous system (CNS) that projects their axons outside the CNS and directly or indirectly control muscles. http://wikipedia.org/ Below is a picture of a motor neuron. The website is for both pictures of the neurons.

4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?

The leech does not experience pain because it is anestisized. Pain is anything that hurts and no that is not a webster's dictionary definition.

5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?

I did not realize that leeches breathe through there skin and how complex they appear to be inside. I thought it was pretty cool to see the way the different stimulus stimulated the neurons.

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?

No I thought it was pretty self explanatory.

*Procedures*

1. anestisize and desect the leech

2. pin it down in dessection pan and then remove the innards ganglion of the leech

3. cut out ganglion window

4. isolate one ganglion

5. cut the ganglion sinus

6. probe and identify the ganglion sensory cells

7. then pick up each tool and test the cells response

8. then match the cell types!

Above are the different cell types that you can choice from to match up.

This is a picture of the different stimuli that I used and I identified the cell type right.

Table of Contents & Compendium Reviews I & II

2008-04-06T18:55:00.000-07:00

Table Of Contents
The Body
Environmental Interactions
Chapters 13 & 14

Compendium Review I

I. Principles of Endocrinology

A. Target Cells, Tropic, Nontropic hormones, & Negative feedback

B. Pituitary & Hypothalamus www.mednote.co.kr
http://faculty.virginia.edu/bio202/lectures/Pituitary.gif
1. Hormones & functions

C. The Thyroid gland www.fccj.org
1. Thyroxine, Triidothyronine, Calcitonin

D. The Parathyroid glands & Pancreas
1. Glucagon & Insulin
2. Adrenal Medulla & Adrenal Cortex www.valleyhealth.com/images/image_popup/adrenal.jpg
3. Diseases of the Adrenal Cortex

E. Endocrine Disorders

II. The Immune System

A. Viruses & Bacteria
1. Treatments for Infections

B. First & Second Lines of Defense
1. Inflammatory Response
2. Pyrogens, Interferons, & Complement

C. Third Line of Defense
1. Antigens
2. T cells, B cells & Antibodies http://www.asu.edu/, http://www.uccs.edu/~rmelamed/MicroFall2002/Chapter%2017/B-Cells.jpg
3. Macrophages, active & Passive Immunity biomed.brown.edu
4. Tissue transplantation

D. Diseases of the Immunity System
1. Allergies www.personalmd.com
2. Autoimmune Diseases

The endocrine system is very complex that is made up of many small glands that are in various places in the body that produces hormones that are transported throughout the body via the bloodstream. Hormones effect our homeostasis, growth & development, reproduction, energy production and storage and behavior.
-The target cells contain receptors that are for specific hormones. Some receptors are found in the cells cytoplasm, or in the cells plasma membrane.
Hormones fall into two very broad categories.
-Tropic hormones stimulate the endocrine glands to produce and release hormones.
-Nontropic hormones are needed to help stimulate cell growth, metabolism, and other functions.
Chemical compositions are important when talking about hormones and their classification. There are three types of hormones that are made in the body and they are; steroids, proteins and polypeptides, and lastly, amines.
-There are two types of feedback loops that controls hormonal secretions in the body and they are negative feedback loops and positive feedback loops.
-The pituitary gland secretes hormones by the anterior and posterior lobes. It is pea shaped and hangs from the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus which is located in the brain controls and regulates the hormone production, nutrients and ions in the blood. When talking about the hypothalamus it is important to remember that it produces two types of hormones and they are the inhibiting and releasing hormones. The hypothalamus is triggered to produce the hormones by nerve impulses and chemical stimuli in the body. Below is a picture of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus and how they cooperate with each other.

-Anterior Pituitary is in charge of the following hormones:
Growth hormone: breaks down fat in the body, growth in cells, muscles, and bones
Thyroid-stimulating hormone: releases throxine & triiodothyronine.
Andrenocorticotropic hormone: where hormones are secreted by the adrenal cortex and glucocorticoids.
Gonadotropins: gamete and hormone production takes place by the gonads.
Prolactin: stimulates milk production
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone: unknown the function of this hormone. How could we not know this?
-Posterior pituitary gland is in charge of the following hormones:
Antidiuretic hormone: which stimulates water reabsorption by nephrons of the kidney.
Oxytocin: stimulates the release of milk from breasts and contractions during birth.
-The thyroid gland is in the neck and it produces three different hormones. Depending on the person each thyroid is shaped differently wither U-shaped or H-shaped. The thyroid is important in balancing out the metabolism, heat production, and calcium levels in the blood. The thyroid gland is made up of a spherical shaped structure known as the follicles.
-The two hormones, thyroxin and triiodothyronine work together to accelerate the breakdown of glucose and also assist in the growth and development. Calcitonin decreases the elevations of calcium in the blood.
When thyroid activity is slowed down it is called hypothroidism and when it is increased it is called hyperthyroidism.
-Parathyroid glands are embedded into the back of the thyroid gland and they produce the hormone Para hormone. Its co-worker is calcitonin and when they work together it makes for a successful calcium level drop.
- The pancreas’ primary function is to produce insulin and glucagons that will control the glucose levels in the blood but it also produces digestive enzymes that it releases into the small intestine. It is located in the abdominal cavity. Below is a picture of the pancreas and a portion of the small intestine.

-Glucagon raises the glucose levels in the blood and directly goes against the actions of insulin. Insulin causes the blood sugar levels to drop after eating food. There are tests that can be conducted that help with finding out if the levels are balanced in the body it is called the glucose tolerance test. During this test the doctors give their patients glucose orally and then check the blood levels regularly.
The adrenal glands sit on top of the kidneys and each is made up of two parts.
-The adrenal medulla which is what raises your heart rate and accelerates the breathing when we get frightened or scared from the latest freaky movie at the theater. It produces our stress hormones called adrenaline and noradrenaline. This is what determines whether you are going to stay and fight or take flight. This is a picture of the kidneys with the adrenal glands nestled into the upper portion of them.

-The adrenal cortex produces three types of hormones and it is considered to be the outer part of the gland. The first group is called the glucocorticoids which are important in glucose metabolism and maintaining blood glucose levels. Several chemically secreted glucocorticoids are important and one of those is cortisol. Cortisol helps in the inflammation of the tissues when they are injured or damaged. The second group is called the mineral corticoids and they are involved in electrolyte or mineral salt balance. The most important one is aldosterone. It stimulates sodium reabsorption in sweat glands, saliva, and potassium excretion of the kidneys. Aldosterone helps to conserve body water.
-Endocrine disorders and their causes-
Hypersecretion = over production of something hyposecretion = under production of something
Giantism: hypersecretion of growth hormones (GH) starting at birth or early on in life.
Dwarfism: hyposecretion of growth hormone starting at birth or early on in life.
Acromegaly: hyper secretion of GH after bone growth has stopped
Hyperthyroidism: over activity of the thyroid gland
Hypothyroidism: under activity of thyroid gland
Hyperparathyroidism: excess parathyroid hormone secretion usually resulting from a benign tumor in the parathyroid gland.
Cushing’s syndrome: hyper secretion of hormones from adrenal cortex or from cortisone treatments
Hyporparathyroidism: hyposecretion of the parathyroid glands
Diabetes insipidus: hyposecretion of ADH
Diabetes mellitus: insufficient insulin production or inability of target cells to respond to insulin
Addison’s disease: gradual decrease in production of hormones from adrenal gland very common with that of an autoimmune reaction.

The immune system is a complex system in our body. It is what is necessary to fight off infections, viruses, and bacteria.
-Viruses are nonliving biological agents that invade cells. A virus has a nucleic core that consists of DNA or RNA. It contains a protein that is in the core that is known as a capsid. Viruses can’t multiply and divide on their own like cells can. A viruses main mission is to invade and conquer. Most viruses get into the body through the respiratory and digestive systems and also through sexual contact.
When an invasion like this takes place the immune system kicks into high gear usually wiping out the virus within 10 to 14 days.
-When we think of bacteria it is not always thought that there are good and bad bacteria but some bacteria are helpful to the body and others can be harmful. Bacteria are classified as living organisms that take over their hosts. Bacteria are prokaryotes. (no nucleus) Bacteria contains tiny circular chromosomal DNA called plasmids. Bacteria can enter into the body through the respiratory, upper GI tract, cuts and abrasions, and urinary system. Once they are inside the body they often use our own nutrients to make more their kind.
Treating viruses and bacteria they have to be treated differently. Bacteria can be combated with antibiotics by shutting down the protein synthesis.
-The first line of defense is a physical and chemical barrier. The skin is an important physical barrier in defending the body against foreign microorganisms. There is a layer of the skin called the dermis. It has epidermal cells are produced by cell division in the epidermis. The dead cells contain keratin. Keratin is what is used in waterproofing our bodies and providing protection for the tissues. The cells of the epidermis are joined by special structures known as tight junctions. The chemical barrier in the first line of defense is the hydrochloric acid that the stomach produces and that aids in destroying the bacteria that is ingested. Tears and saliva are contain the enzyme lysozyme which are used in destroying the cell wall of the bacteria.
-The second line of defense combats infectious agents that might get through the first lines of defense and it involves a huge array of chemical and cellular agents. There are four components in the second line of defense; inflammatory response, pyrogens, interferons, and complement.
Pyrogens are molecules released primarily by macrophages that have been exposed to bacteria. The pyrogens travel to the hypothalamus. The body’s temperature is controlled by a group of nerve cells kind of like an internal thermometer. Below is a picture of a macrophage attacking foreign cells.
Interferons are a group of proteins that are released from cells that are infected by the virus. Interferons don’t protect the cells that are already infected by the different viruses they just help in stopping the spread of the viruses to other cells.
Blood proteins come together to give help to the antibodies to form what is called the complement system.
There are five proteins that join together to form a large protein complex called the membrane-attack complex. This membrane gets inside the plasma membrane of the cell and makes an opening for water to flow through. This in turn causes the bacteria to swell up and explode.
-The third line of defense is the immune system. The cells of the immune system selectively target foreign substances and foreign organisms. The immune system is extremely important in maintaining homeostasis by eliminating bacteria, viruses, single celled fungi and many parasites. The immune system is like the paper sorter of the body. Separating the good stuff from the bad stuff.
-Antigens are substances that trigger the immune response. Antigens stimulate two types of lymphocytes which are T cells and B cells.
-B cells react to microorganisms called bacteria toxins. When activated they produce antibodies. These cells mature in the bone marrow. Below is a picture of a T cell and its immune defense.
-T cells are formed in the thymus and each one will bind with another antigen.
Several million of the B & T cells are produced in the body early in life. Only a small percentage of these cells will be called into action during our lifetime. There are four types of that are important when thinking about T cells.
1. Cytotoxic T cells bind to the molecules in the membranes of the cells they attack and then they release a chemical substance known as perforin-1. These guys are housed in the membranous sacs in the cytoplasm of the cytotoxic T cells. The performing-1 are then released into the space between the killer cell and its prey.
2. Helper T-cells enhance the immune response and it releases interleukin 2 and this helps in increasing the activity of the cytotoxic T cells. These cells make up about 60% to 70% of the T cells that are moving around throughout the body.
3. Memory T cells are also produced when antigens are present. These guys form a cellular reserve and they protect the body in the event that the intrusion occurs at a later date.
4. Suppressor T cells are the cells that turn off the actions of the immune system. As the job of the other T cells begin to slow down and the suppressor T cells begin to increase.

Below is a picture of a B cell. It is interesting to see its way of responding.
-Antibodies are formed by the B cells dividing into what is known as lymphoblasts and then they work together to form a new cell called the plasma cell. Then these cells produce antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that get rid of bacteria and bacteria toxins. Antibodies fall into a class of blood proteins called globulins and they are specifically called immunoglobulins. It is T shaped and has four peptide chains.
When an antigen enters into the body it initiates a primary response and this response is pretty slow but effective. Antibodies kill of antigens different ways.
1. By neutralization and this where the antibodies bind to viruses or bacterial toxins by putting a clear coat around them.
2. Agglutination this occurs when antibodies bind to the antigens and clump together.
-Macrophages play a very important role in protecting the body. They help stimulate T and B cells to fight off bacteria toxins. The macrophages are the ones that cover the foreign toxins surround them and clump together and present them to the help T cells.
- There are two types of immunity that take place in the body.
One type is active immunity. Vaccines are considered to be an active immunity. Reason being is because the vaccine is injected into the patient and then the body produces memory cells in T and B cells that protect the body against futuristic infections. Vaccines has helped in combating serious diseases such as polio, and smallpox.
Another type of immunity is passive immunity. It is a temporary form of protection where the body is injected with immunoglobulins. The cells in the body are not activated and that is why it is considered passive. An example of this would be the injection of immunoglobulins after a poisonous snake bite. Infants can also get this type of protection through the placental sac while in the womb.
-Tissue transplants are very complicated for the immune system. There are three ways that tissue transplantation can be excepted. The first way is if you can actually use what you already have. An example of this would be with burn victims a lot of times the doctors will use tissue from other areas of the body cover a very damaged area. The second way is if the tissue that is being used comes from an identical twin. Because the twins have identical antigens and cells. The last way a tissue transplant may be excepted is if medication (immunity suppressant) is given to the patient. This medicine is usually continued throughout the lifetime of the patient. Unfortunately, this causes the patient to be vulnerable to many other viruses and bacteria in the environment.
When talking about the immune system you have to keep in mind that with every complex system in the body there can be malfunction. Two types of malfunction are autoimmune diseases as well as allergies. I did not realize that allergies were a malfunction of the immune system. Boy there is a lot of malfunctioning going on! Below is a picture of the way histamines are released and worked.

-Allergies are the body’s way of overreacting to environmental substances. Antigens that stimulate an allergic reaction are called allergens. Histamines cause the arterioles to dilate and then the bronchioles constrict which makes it hard for the person to breathe. When this happens it is called asthma. Most allergic reactions are not life threatening but if the allergic response occurs in the blood stream then it can be fatal if not treated right away. A drop in blood pressure and constriction of the bronchioles can result in anaphylactic shock. I have heard of this happening with bee stings and snake bites. Allergies can be treated three different way. The first way is easy stay away from what bothers. Second, administer antihistimines which counteract the effects of the body. Third, get allergy shots. With each shot that is given the level of the allergen is increased and by doing this it helps in reducing the body’s allergic reaction.
-Autoimmune diseases result from the body calling an attack on its own cells. This can take place in a number of ways. One way is if a body organ is injured in some way and then the normal body proteins are entered into the blood stream this then results in a immune system response. Also, a genetic or chemical mutation that the body no longer recognizes as belonging to the individual.
The immune system is a complex system made up of crime fighters and pacifiers. We all hold a little bit of good and evil when it comes to fighting off infections and diseases or excepting tissues and vaccines. Even sometimes we can have the dramatic consequences of mutiny. Like with each system in the human body they all come with the abilities to malfunction, which in turn can lead to serious consequences. Without this protective big brother, called the immune system, we would be lost in a world of sickness.

Table Of Contents
The Body
Environmental Interactions
Chapters 11 & 12

Compendium Review II

I. Senses

A. General & Special Senses
1. Naked Nerve Endings & Encapsulated Receptors www.visualsunlimited.com

B. Taste & Smell
1. Olfactory Epithelium
library.thinkquest.org

C. The Visual Sense : The Eye
1. Structures & Functions of the Eye www.emedicinehealth.com
2. Cones & Rods
3. Visual Problems

D. Hearing & Balance
1. Anatomy of the Ear
2. Structures & Functions of the Ear http://www.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/vc/musc726a/MUSC%20726%20Lecture/more%20ear-brain/01-ear.gif

II. The Skeleton & Muscles

A. Structure & Function of the Human Skeleton
1. Compact, Spongy Bones, & Joints bioweb.wku.edu

2. Injuries of Joints http://www.dropmachine.com/media/data/500/AC_JOINTS_BILAT_0001.jpg

B. Skeletal Muscles
1. Muscle Fibers Parts & Functions http://www.muscleandstrength.com/images/articles/musclefiber.jpg

The body has its own surveillance system. There are many receptors in the body that monitor all the things inside the body as well as outside of the body. The body contains two types of receptors that are made up of general senses and special senses. General senses are usually evoked by stimuli. When talking about general they consist of pain, touch, pressures, temperatures and limb positions. When talking about the special senses they consist of taste, smell, vision, hearing and balance. Receptors come in different sizes and shapes. All these senses working together give our body the ability to perceive the environment and our surroundings.

-The receptors for the general senses fall into two categories.
The first one is called the naked nerve ending receptors.
These nerve endings can detect pain, temperature, and light touching. There are two types of pain and they are called somatic and visceral.
Somatic pain is a result of injuries in the skin, joints, muscles and tendons. The response can be a result of many types of injuries that may occur such as pinching, cutting, breaking, crushing, or even hot and cold temperatures.
Visceral pain is a result from the stimulation of naked nerve endings in the body organs (viscera). Pain receptors are often stimulated by expansion. For example, pain in the intestinal track might be caused by gas stretching the naked nerve fibers in the walls of the intestines. In other body organs the pain receptors could be caused by a lack of oxygen. Somatic pain is easily identified (pinching) whereas visceral pain is often vague and hard to localize (chest pain is it the lungs, heart?) Visceral pain that appears on the body surface but away from the actual location of the pain is called referred pain. Below is a picture of a motor nerve. I think it kind of looks like some modern art I saw the other day or a face to the side. It kind of reminds me of the ink blot pictures.
Light touch two types of mechanoreceptors. The first type consists of nerve endings that are wrapped around the base of the hair follicles. The second type is a light touch mechanoreceptor which is made up of small cup-shaped cells and naked nerve endings that come in contact with them. They are on the outside layer of the skin. Temperature is extremely important one I think because it can detect hot and cold sensation. If the temperature is too hot or too cold the receptors are activated.
-Encapsulated receptors are made up of nerve endings that are surrounded by one or more layers of cells. The largest encapsulated nerve ending is the Pacinian corpuscle. It kind of looks like an onion that has been speared by a wire. They are located in the deep tissue layers of the skin. These are stimulated by pressure like that you feel when you are sitting on the couch. Another type of sensory receptor is called the Meissner’s corpuscle. They respond to a light touch and are located in the outermost layer of the dermis. They are the most abundant in the tips of the finger and on the lips. Proprioception is a sense of position. They are located in the joints and these receptors inform us of what our limbs are doing. Golgi tendon organs are made up of connecctive tissue fibers that are surrounded by nerve endings and encased in a capsule. It is helpful in muscle contraction and knee jerk reflexes.
All these receptors are subject to change which is called adaptation. This happens whent eh receptors stop sending impulses even though the stimulus is still happening. An example of this is when you first put on a pair of earrings, or put in a pair of contacts it was bothersome at first but then you got used to it.
-Taste buds respond to different foods differently depending on the chemicals that they possess. Below is a picture of the tongue in a cartoon format. It is showing where the taste buds are that deliniate the different tastes. Taste buds are located on the tongue. Since the taste buds respond differently to different chemicals in foods they are referred to as chemoreceptors. At the end of each taste bud it has micovilli (taste hairs). Taste buds have five flavors; sweet (stimulated by sugars and amino acids), sour stimulated by acidic substances), bitter (stimulated by alkaloids), salty (stimulated by metal ions), and umami (stimulated by meat flavors MSG too). The taste of something we eat is determined by the amounts of the stimulus it contains.
-The olfactory epithelium is a patch of receptors that detect different smells that are given off by various items. It is a chemical sense. These receptors are located in the roof of the nasal cavity. There are about 50 million olfactory receptor cells in the olfactory membrane. There are 1000 different protein receptor molecules that the olfactory hairs can bond with to create a specific odor. The receptors for smell adapt very quickly to its surrounding smells which is why a lot of times we can’t smell things that others can when they first time walk into a room. We have already adapted to the smell that is good or bad.
-Smell and taste go hand in hand. Molecules that re released by food they enter into your nasal cavity and dissolve in the watery substance in your olfactory membrane and stimulate receptor cells. It smells so good I think I could taste it is not too far off base. That is why food does not taste as good when you are sick as it does when you aren’t.
-The eye is my favorite of all the senses. Below is a picture of an eye inside and outside.The eye is spherical shaped. The eye consists of three layers. The outer layer is made up of the sclera (eye muscles) which is the white part of the eye and the cornea which is the clear part inside the eye. The cornea allows light to come in. The middle layer consists of three parts; the choroid, ciliary body, and the iris. The choroid is the largest portion of the middle layer and it absorbs stray light and it provides that proper nutrients to the eye. The ciliary body contains smooth muscle fibers that control the shape of the lens, and permits us to be able to focus on incoming light and images. The iris is the colored potion of the eye and it also regulates the amount of light entering into the eye. The dark opening in the iris is called the pupil. The pupil allows light to come into the eye. The inner layer is called the retina. The outer layer of the retina is pigmented layer and the inner layer consists of photoreceptors and associated nerve cells. Two types of photoreceptors are in the retina called rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to light usually used for night vision and are located in the periphery of the retina. The cones are used for day vision and are in the macula and fovea. There are about 150 million rods in each EYE! And about 6 million cones. The images from our field of vision are brought into the eye and then into the retina and impulses are transmitted to the visual cortex of the brain. Some processing happens in the retina and the rest happens in the brain. When we see the image it is upside down brought onto the fovea and then the brain processes the information and gives us a right side up image. I think that is awesome! The cornea and lens focus light on the retina. The incoming light is focused on the photoreceptors of the retina by the lens.
Perfect vision is 20/20. Meaning that objects further than 6 meters away are in perfect focus by the retina. -However there are a few types of vision problems.
Nearsightedness is when the eyeball is a bit elongated. Without glasses parallel light rays arising from distant images come into focus in the front of the retina which makes the image blurry. It can also be a result of the lens being too strong or too concave. It is genetic and it generally appears around the age of 12 and gets worse as the child gets to the age of 20.
Farsightedness is the opposite of nearsightedness. It results in the eyeballs being too short or the lens is too weak (too convex). Farsightedness is generally present from birth and tends to run in the families. With this type of seeing problem people can see things far away but things up close are fuzzy.
Another type of eye problem is called astigmatism. This is an unequal curvature in the eye. It is kind of shaped like a basketball. It causes the person to see things in a fuzzy manner. It is usually something that you have when you are born and it is not something that gets worst or goes away as you mature in age.
-Presbyopia is a condition that people over the age of 40 usually develop that makes it hard for people to focus on nearby objects. It can be corrected by wearing eye glasses during such needed activities such as reading, sewing, needlepoint etc.
-Color blindness is in about 5% of the population and it is hereditary and is more common in men then women. This defect is from as simple as not being able to distinguish certain shades of color to not even being able to perceive a color. If you have red-green colorblindness then the body is missing the red or green cones in the eye. If you don’t have enough red cones then you see red as green and if you are missing the green cones then green objects appear red. The only problem I could see this with is if you did not know the position of the stoplight colors. Red at top, yellow in middle and green on bottom then you would not know whether or not to stop or go.
The ear in a human is considered to be a special sense. It has two functions the most obvious one is to hear, and maintain balance and body position.
-The ear is made up of three parts; the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Below is a picture of the ear and its parts to make it easier to identify what is being discussed.
The outer ear is basically that… the outside of the ear. It is an irregular shaped cartilage that is covered by skin and the earlobe. It also consists of a short tube called the external auditory canal and this tube moves airborne sound waves into the middle ear. This is where you will find the nice product called earwax. Earwax is helpful in combating bacteria or anything that might be trapped in the ear. Also it contains an antibiotic substance that helps reducing ear infections.
The middle ear is contained within the skull. The eardrum, or tympanic membrane separates the middle ear cavity from the external auditory canal. Inside the middle ear there are three minuscule bones called the ossicles and they transmit sound to the cochlea in the inner ear. Going from the outside to the inside they are as follows; hammered shaped malleus, incus, and the stirrup shaped bone stapes. When the membrane is struck by the sound waves it then vibrates and causes the malleus moves back and forth. Then the incus vibrates which causes the stapes to move in and out against the oval window. It kind of looks like the head of a drum.
The eustachian tube helps to equalize pressure in the middle ear. It helps to balance out the pressure internally and externally. When there is a change in elevation and the feeling of the ears popping this is the eustachian tube equaling out the pressure.
The inner ear occupies the large cavity in the temporal bone of the skull and contains two sensory organs, the cochlea (snail shaped) and the vestibular apparatus which is made up of two parts; the semicircular canals and the vestibule. The semicircular canals are three ringlike structures filled with fluid set at right angles to one another. They house the receptors that tell the body the position and movement. The receptors for head movement are located in there. There are two membranous sacs in the vestibule, the utricle and the saccule, contain receptors that respond to linear acceleration and tilting of the head.
The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, joints, and muscles. In adults muscles make up about 50% to 60% of the body weight.
Bones have many functions for the body. They give internal support, create movement, and protect the internal organs. In addition to all those important functions they also produce blood cells and platelets, store fat, and help to regulate the blood calcium levels in the body.
-The skeleton consists of two parts. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, spine, and the rib cage. The second part is called the appendicular skeleton and this consists of the arms, shoulders, legs, and pelvis.
-Bones are made up of a dense outer layer and a less compact central region or spongy bone.
The outer layer of the compact bone is a layer of connective tissue. This tissue is called periostemon and it serves as a site of attachment for skeletal muscles by tendons and is filled with nerve fibers. Inside the bone is a large cavity called the marrow cavity. There is red marrow which is found in a fetus or in a newborn. As people age everyone’s marrow turns to yellow. Yellow marrow can be reactivated to produce blood cells under certain circumstances when an injury occurs. Bones are remodeled for strength when exposed to new stresses. Multinucleated cells that are present on the spongy bones are called osteoclasts. Osteoclasts are very large cells that digest bone with enzymes. Osteoclasts tear down some of the spongy bone whereas osteoblasts rebuild new compact bone, causing it to thicken to meet new stresses. Osteoporosis is a disease of the bone that is caused by a progressive loss of calcium in the bones. It makes the bones become brittle and weak which in turn can make for an easy break. It is most common among women that are going through menopause and are losing the estrogen hormone and it can also occur in people that are immobile for long periods of time. It can be reversed through calcium supplements, calcium rich foods, estrogen therapy and exercise.
-Joints permit varying degrees of mobility. Mobility occurs when bone and muscles work together. Joints are the structures that connect the bones of the skeleton. Some joints only allow little mobility and they are called slightly moveable (the vertebrae) and other joints that permit no mobility are called immovable joints (skull bones connecting together to form the skull) and the last bit of joints that allow free movement or synovial joints are called movable joints (arms). Joints have cartilage that are located on the surface of the bone and connective tissue that that form ligaments that join bone to bone together. Ligaments are not very flexible. Synovial fluid provides nutrients to the cartilage and it is like a lubricant. Tendons and muscles provide additional support in the joints. Two of the most common synovial joints are the hinge joints (knees and fingers) that have limited mobility and the ball-in-socket (hips and shoulders) that have a wider range of mobility. Below is a picture of a synovial joint along with all the parts that are of importance when thinking about it.
-Joints can be injured in one of three common ways. Dislocation which is caused by a fall or some other body movement that does not agree with the joint. It is when the joint “pops” out so to speak and is moved from its correct position. It is sometimes accompanied by a sprain, inflammation, and immobility. This often times happens with shoulders, fingers, or knees and it is necessary for it to be put back into place in order for the joint to function properly. A sprain is another common injury when we are talking about joints. It is usually a partially or completely torn ligament and it heals slowly. It has to be repaired a lot of times with surgery when the ligament is completely torn. Cartilage tears are another common joint injury. It can happen if the joints are twisted or when pressure is applied to them. Cartilage tears are usually done by surgically removing it and it sometimes makes the joints less stable and this usually occurs in the knee joints. Osteoarthritis is caused by wear and tear on the cartilage. One of the most common problems is called degenerative joint disease or osteoarthritis. Excessive wear and tear on the joints causes cartilage to crack and flake. It most of the time it occurs on weight bearing joints. There is also rheumatoid arthritis is another common disorder it is an autoimmune disease and it is the most crippling and painful form of arthritis. It occurs in people between the ages of 20 and 40. It is a permanent condition that can be with physical therapy, painkillers, anti-inflammatory drugs, and surgery. Below is a picture of a bone iwht muscle fibers and it also shows the marrow. Everything is labeled for easy understanding.
The skeletal muscles allow a wide range of movement. Skeletal muscles are controlled by the nervous system. Most skeletal muscles are stretched over one or more joints and so when they contract it then causes movement. Muscles often times work in groups to produce movement or different activities. Skeletal muscles are both excitable and contractile and they consist of long unbranched muscle fibers. They appear striped or striated if looked at under a microscope. These fibers are very elastic and are capable of returning to there regular position and look after they are flexed or released. Inside the muscle fibers can be found numerous myofibrils, bundles of contractile filaments like the proteins actin and myosin which are stimulated by nerve impulses. During muscle contraction or shortening the actin filaments are pulled by the myosin molecules that cause them to slide inward. The attachment of the myosin and actin molecules are stimulated by the release of calcium inside the muscle cells. ATP in the muscle provides the energy necessary to pull the actin filaments inward. ATP is used regularly when you are talking about muscle cells.
A single contraction followed by relaxing is called a switch. The engagement of additional muscle fibers during contraction is called recruitment. The motor neuron and the muscle fibers it supplies constitute a motor unit. Motor units account for the degree of control that various muscles put forth. In order for the force of the contraction to be stronger more motor neurons are stimulated. The strength of a muscle contraction can also be increased by a process called wave stimulation. The firmness that your muscle has is called muscle tone. It is essential for maintaining posture. It also generates heat in any warm blooded animals. Muscle tone results from the contraction of the muscle fibers during periods where you are not as active. The skeletal muscles have two types of muscle fibers called slow an dfast twitches. Slow twitch fibers contract relatively slow but have a lot of endurance. Fast-twitch muscle fibers contract swiftly. The muscles of sprinters and other athletes whose performance depends on quick bursts of activity contain a high proportion of fast-twitch fibers. Skeletal muscles have a pretty good ocmbination of slow and fast-twitch fibers giving the muscles overall a very good performance. Increasing muscle mass and endurance go hand and hand. Muscle protein is quickly made and destroyed. Half of the muscles you gain in lifting weights is lost within 2 weeks after stopping the exercise. High intensity exercise like weightlifting builds muscles relatively easy and takes very little of it to see a change. Whereas low intensity exercise such as aerobics and swimming don’t build bulk muscle but it does increase in our endurance. Increased endurance also is a result of improving the function of the respiratory system and blood flow.
The skeleton and the muscles that connect it are important in mobility and overall health. Any malfunction in one area or another may result in painful consequences. Just like with all systems in the body it is a complex network all working together to improve our overall performance.

FooD TalKs BoDy WalKs: Ethical ESSay

2008-03-24T14:43:00.000-07:00

I remember growing up and watching all those television shows like the Brady Bunch, Leave it To Beaver, Father Knows Best and thinking when I grow up I plan on having a functioning family just like that. By functioning I mean, everyone sitting down and eating the whole breakfast getup with eggs and sausage, the whole nine yards. After which the kids off to school with sack lunches and neatly combed hair. Then, the husband coming home for a healthy sandwich, fruit, afternoon chit chat and then back to work he goes. Next, the kids home from school going over the day, helping with homework, and making dinner. The kids helping me along the way with preparing the food in between their ins and outs of playing outside. Then, sitting down for dinner and going over what has transpired in the course of a day. But unfortunately, it is not all fairy tales and television drama in my house. I am a married and a mother of three beautiful children. I stay very busy with work, home life, and now I have added college to the mix of an already packed day. My kids are involved in after school activities, field trips, and sports games. I keep my kids involved in such things because it is suggested that it is good to keep your kids busy because idle minds have a tendency to get into trouble. I would love to be able to do the things as seen in black in white on the ole television many years ago but the truth is there is not enough time in the day to accomplish this. Trust me, I would love to be able to get up when the roosters crow to make the best of best breakfasts with all the food pyramids requirements but it is not possible.
So we improvise! The kids start off with cereal or oat meal and milk to drink. For breakfast we try to get things that are easy to prepare and healthy at the same time. We do have junk food cereals but we try to eat those in moderation. The kids would rather eat lunch at school and now with the way the food administration is cracking down on the daily allowances of this and that in the weekly calendar of food at school that is not a bad idea. The lunches at school are not just soy bean burgers on Mondays anymore. Several days through the week I am not home until after 6pm. This is not because I work it is because I am running the kids to their ballet practices, soccer practices and after school activities. I am not sure where I am suppose to squeeze in the cooking of food for dinner. I think it is important to have sit down dinners but we are all in and out of the house at various times that it makes it hard to coordinate it. Everyone is hungry and no one wants to wait until 7 pm to eat. That is way too late but we all want to eat healthy.
So one way I have tried to invest more time into making sure that we all eat healthier is by investing in a crock pot and quickie cookbooks. Even some of those meals can be made in 30 minutes or less. That way on the nights that I am running here and there late at night the food is ready for my husband who is usually home first. Crock pots are great for stews, chili, roasts with the veggies, and many other pasta meals if you add the noodles last. I like the idea of having “family dinners” is what we call them. That is where dinner is prepared and we sit at the dining table a consume and converse with each other but often times then not it does not always work out that way.
I think that many people live a fast paced life not paying attention to food intake, calories, or the recommended daily allowances that are suggested. Not because they chose to be unhealthy but because it is kind of complicated to figure out and work out. I don’t think that people sit around thinking what can I eat to make me fatter, more unhealthy, more likely to have cardio problems, or type II diabetes. I think that many restaurants are making it easier to count calories and break things down for you on the menu. I think that would be a big help in trying to watch what we are eating and trying not to take in too many of the wrong types of foods. Subway is a perfect place to go if you are wanting to know what is in each sandwich or at least each of the most popular ones. Applebee’s also has a weight watchers menu. Often times you can find vegetarian cuisine as well as a light menu in many places. I think that this is one way that we could combat the aftermath(unhealthy eating) that is a result of having a busy life. I think that restaurants need to start putting more of an effort into making sure that what they are serving us is healthy and balanced. Because I don’t see us cutting back on going out to dinner or breakfast anytime soon.
I don’t think that people or families necessarily want to eat unhealthy but I think that it is so much easier to just pick up something quick from the fast food place rather rush home and throw something together. I liked the idea of preparing food slow. I like to make my own orange juice. I just actually received from my Grandmother her old crystal juicer. It gives you time to enjoy what you have prepared. It is always a good feeling to know that you have made this or that “from scratch.” It always get the, "oooo’s and awww’s" from the loved ones when you express that feat. I think that if we all could slow it down a bit it would be better for us all the way around. Everyone step away from the typical fast paced crazy life and take more time to be selfish when it comes to what we are putting into our bodies it would be beneficial. After all lets take a quote from the old Schoolhouse Rock cartoons, “You are what you eat!”

*SELF EVALUATION*

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am proud of my graphs, tables, abilities to actually be able to finally “get” the computer part of it. I loved the graph website a lot. That is going to help in another class that I am taking to be able to make graphs for a presentation that I am having to do.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
I think I did a very good job. I worked hard and put in a lot of effort. I think I could have done a better job at analyzing my data better with comparing my actual results to my hypothetical results. Also, posting my pictures with each section. I tried to figure that out while I was doing it… with no such luck.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I think I should get an A in the unit. I think I put in the time and everything that is necessary. I tried to read thoroughly what was needed to be done in each section and tried to complete all that was required.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
I know I said before better time management and organization. Well I think I mastered the whole organization thingy. But I think better time management would be a plus.

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I felt the most engaged when I was doing the labs. I liked comparing the peoples’ blood pressure readings and trying to compare and contrast why they were the same or different and what influenced the readings. I loved doing the hands on labs where I was obtaining my bp, respiration rates, and pulse readings.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
I found this whole unit interesting. But I think the cells red and white etc... Was probably where I was the most distanced.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
The teacher was always there to answer any of the questions I had and I found that to be very helpful and reassuring.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
There was not one thing that was puzzling that the teacher or student did but the calorie calculator was a bit tricky but I think that is super helpful if you are trying to regulate your intake and trying to figure out if what you are eating is what is actually good for you. Because it is not only about counting calories but are the calories you are consuming beneficial.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
I think it was surprising that I got more excited and had higher bp during eating then I did doing the head stand. AND that was hard by the way… to do it for 10 MINUTES… yikes… the blood was rushing big time!

Rest...Guess...Gooo! Exercise Lab

2008-03-23T19:37:00.000-07:00

Regular exercise is good for your body to help in maintaining homeostasis. The body is made up of several organ systems. Without any one of these systems there would be a failure in our ability to function. The circulatory systems consist of a series of vessels that transport blood to and from the heart and then throughout the whole body. By increasing exercise blood flow is increased and oxygen levels are elevated. Oxygen is needed to supply the cells with growth and the necessary nutrients. While resting, the respiratory levels, blood pressure and pulse are lower and as activity is increased so are the respiratory levels, blood pressure and pulse. Exercise can halp you feel better, look better and feel a sense of sccomplishment. It can also lower the chances of developing different diseases such as type II diabetes and high blood pressure. As you will see in the graphs and information with increased strain in exercising there are elevated levels of blood pressure as well as respiration. Increased exercise increases blood flow to various parts of the body. Exercise and activity is not only good for the body but also the mind as well!

In the graph below I have hypothesized what I thought would happen to my blood pressure, pulse, and respiration levels during each of the activities. For my three activities I chose to do for 10 minutes were; eating lunch (yum), standing on head, and hiking with the family. I took my blood pressure, pulse and counted my respiration levels as well. Respiration is counted by using a second hand on a watch and counting the breaths that are happening in 30 seconds and then multiplying by two. One breath is a breathing in and exhaling out. The pulse is taken by counting how many beats are happening within the 30 seconds and then multiply that by two. Placing two fingers on the side of your neck on either side of the trachea and locating a beat. Thud thud.

For each of the activities I projected what I thought would happen for each.

I thought that activity 1 (eating lunch) would not result in much of an increase of any of the rates.

I thought that for activity 2 (standing on head) would result in an increase in all the rates but not as much as say hiking or really anything that would be considered an exertion of any kind.

I thought that for activity 3 (hiking) there would be considerably higher then my resting rate or any of the other activities. So I projected it to high.

I did each of the activities and took my readings 5 times so that I could compare the results to that of my baseline or resting rates.

This is the blood pressure machine that I used. Luckily I did not have to run to Walgreens to get the reading every time. Phew.

This one way to take the pulse. Using two fingers. Palms up. Then, looking at a stop watch or something with a second hand count the beats that occur in 30 seconds. This is another way to take the pulse. Two fingers placed on your neck an inch or so below the chin just to the left or right of the trachea.

Here is the recorded data on a table above. It includes the resting rate, activity 1 (eating at lunch), activity 2 (head stand), and activity 3 (hiking). In the chart as you move your eyes down the side you can see the pulse, respiration, and blood pressure (systolic & diastolic) for each activity. the mean of each is on the far right hand column. Below are the means for each in bar graphs. The rate of each category is on the left hand side of the graph. Each activity including resting rate is at the bottom of the graph and the numbers of each bar is located at the top.

The graph above shows the respiration rate of each activity including resting rate.

The graph above is diastolic rate of the blood pressure reading for the activities including resting.
The graph above is the systolic rate of the blood pressure reading for each of the activities including resting rate.
This is a graph of the pulse reading for each of the following activities including resting rate.

Here is a picture of my son and I eating lunch. My daughter just thought she was the bomb for being able to take the picture. I did not think that my readings (pulse, respiration, bp) would be elevated much by doing this activity. But they were slightly elevated... eating these yummy treat must of made me happy! That banana was mm mm good.
The picture above is of me doing a head stand... and let me tell you... this was no easy task. I thought my head was gonna snap off or fill completely with blood. man o man...my readings were elevated but not by a bunch. My kids thought this was hilarious... seeing me do a head stand. You know I don't think I have done that since I was about 12 years old.

The picture above is of me and the family taking a break from hiking at Sycamore Canyon. As you can see from the recorded reading on the chart they are clearly elevated. That was a fun day. We even saw an eagle and a family of mule dear! Exciting stuff ya'll!

This is the eagle soaring in the sky the wing span was incredible... pretty neat!

This is the family of mule deer that we saw on our hike out! Way awesome! It doesn't take much to make my day!

After taking a look at my hypothesized data and comparing it to my gathered data. For the most part it was not right. Let's take each category one at a time.

Act. 1 pulse: hypothesis (78) actual (83)

Act. 1 respiration: hypothesis (14) actual (18)

Act. 1 bp systolic: hypothesis (138) actual (144)

Act. 1 bp diastolic: hypothesis (88) actual (94)

Act. 2 pulse: hypothesis (82) actual (80)

Act. 2 respiration: hypothesis (22) actual (23) Close!

Act. 2 bp systolic: hypothesis (145) actual (143)

Act. 2 bp diastolic: hypothesis (98) actual (90)

Act. 3 pulse: hypothesis (110) actual (109) Close!

Act. 3 respiration: hypothesis (34) actual (39)

Act. 3 bp systolic: hypothesis (168) actual (164)

Act. 3 bp diastolic: hypothesis (106) actual (114)

What I thought was interesting about the recorded data was that I got more excited (by excited I mean elevation in my rates) about eating my lunch then standing on my head. I thought for sure that the head standing event would raise my pulse, respiration, and bp levels more then eating my lunch. But it did not. The only level that was raised higher was my respiration levels by doing the head stand. Maybe it was the conversation at lunch with my kids that made my levels higher. It was a happy and funny lunch talk. I thought that laughter was good for you? Maybe the results would have been different with the head standing if I had moved a bit faster with the different readings. I did not get right on the mark on any of the hypothesized rates but I came close a few times. Overall, I was right when thinking that hiking would have significantly higher rates then any of the other activities. I think it would have been interesting to do the same activities with people who might have respiratory problems like asthma. I am sure there would be a difference in respiration levels as well as blood pressure readings. Also I think it would have been interesting to be able to compare my results with those of friends or family members doing the same types of exercises. Or maybe different age groups. Or adolescent versus adults.

In conclusion, various activities from eating lunch to hiking with the family all require energy. With the increase in activity there is an increase in oxygen production, blood flow and cellular nutrition and respiration to make this possible. With exercise being increased it caused the blood flow to increase which is why the blood pressure was higher in the diastolic and systolic levels. Blood flow moving in and out of the heart with each beat. Moving oxygenated blood through to various tissues in the body. With increased activity there are "wastes" carbon dioxide that are exhaled. Hints the intake of oxygen and the exhale of carbon dioxide rapidly increasing as the activity levels increased as was noted on the tables and graphs above. The ole saying, "get a bit of fresh air," never hurts, if anything it helps. In order for the body to function properly it is vital to consume a balanced diet, get regular exercise, and appropriate rest as well. After all we can live weeks without food, days without water but we can only last a few minutes without oxygen. Oxygen is vital for survival. I think in life there has to be a clear balance. Everything in moderation!

fOOd 4 ThOught

2008-03-19T10:33:00.001-07:00

This is a calorie counter tool from a great website called: balancemindbodysoul.com and it is a nutritional way to keep track of what each item taken in in a calorie form and then totalled to give you the totals broken down in different percentages ie... fiber, sugars, fats, etc.

So if you look at the left hand side of the screen you will see the choices of different items that you can pick from. You can also type in words for specific items and it will search and give you the matches in the upper middle white box. Then you scroll down and choose the correct type that you are looking for and click "add to list". Then it puts the item to the bottom white box and adds all the calories and nutritional information together in the label to the bottom right of what you ate. As you add a food item it adds up the information on each item. It is pretty nifty.

This is a log of what I ate in one day. Calorie wise I think I did okay but when you look at sodium levels, fat levels, and other percentage levels it is clear that a bit of change in my diet would not hurt. One thing not included in the mix of food counting was the skittles that I ate as a snack mid day, the apple that I ate and of course water! This was really interesting and fun to do!

*Questions*

How healthy of a diet do you think this is? Why?

I thought I was eating pretty healthy. I am eating fruits, veggies and drinking my 6 to 8 glasses of water a day (okay maybe not quite 6 glasses on some days) but after seeing the readings of how many fats and sugars I was taking in... I am thinking that it could use a bit of altering and the SODIUM was crazy high!

What would you change about this day's eating, if any?

If I were to change anything it would probably be not having so much bread. But I really like what I ate it was delicious. So maybe I would just add a bit more exercise to the mix to balance it all out after all this is not what I eat everyday. I have a varied diet and I think that anything in moderation is good.

Do you find this type of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?

I think that this type of nutritional tracking is great. I think that writing down everything that was consumed in one day was actually more helpful then using the calculator because it made me conscientious of what I was eating. I liked the way the food calculator added everything up and broke everything down into the subcategories such fats, cholesterol, sugars etc. and I think this could be very helpful to those that are trying to watch what they eat for dieting or health reasons.

ComPenDiuM ReviEW for NuTriTion & DiGesTioN

2008-03-18T12:15:00.000-07:00

Internal Body Maintenance

Table Of Contents For
Nutrition & Digestion

I. Nutrition (5)

A. Macronutrients
1. Water
3. Carbohydrates
4. Lipids
5. Amino Acids & Protein

B. Micronutrients
1. Vitamins & Minerals
2. Food Functions

II. The Digestive System

A. Passage of Food
1. Mouth, Tongue & Teeth
2. Epiglottis, Esophagus, & Stomach
3. Chyme, Small Intestines, Pancreas, Liver
4. Intestinal Epithelium & Large Intestines

III. Respiratory System

A. Passageway of air
1. Parts and functions

B. Gas exchange
1. Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide

C. Breathing & Control of Respiration
1. Inspiration & Expiration

D. Diseases of Respiratory System
1. Viral & bacterial Infections
2. Asthma & Emphysema

IV. Glucose & Diffusion

A. Kreb’s Cycle
B. Diabetes Type I & II & Gestational

*Nutrition*
When I think of nutrition one cartoon from childhood pops into mind and that is the one from, “Schoolhouse Rock” with that song, “You are what you eat.” It is hard to believe but what is consumed now with effect our bodies in the future. It is important to eat a balanced diet with a fair dispersement of the proper nutrients, vitamins and minerals to function accordingly. The US Department of Agriculture designed a food pyramid to help people eat healthier. In this food pyramid there are six main food groups with the amounts that people should consume have the proper nutrition. The nutrients that are necessary to survive and maintain healthiness can be split up into two categories; macronutrients and micronutrients.
*Macronutrients*
-Macronutrients consist of five basic things; water, amino acids and proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. These can be found in various foods and drinks, milk and milk products, meats, nuts, oils, seeds, breads pastas, cereals, and sweets. Macronutrients are needed in large quantities and water is the most important. ---Without water the average person would not be able to survive for more then 3 days. The body has to maintain sufficient water intake because it is involved in many chemical reactions in the body. Water helps to maintain proper body temperature too.
-Carbohydrates are a major source of energy for the body. They primarily consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are three types of groups that carbohydrates fall into; monosaccharides, dissacharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are usually categorized as simple sugars like glucose. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides stuck together such as glucose and fructose. Glucose molecules are stored in the liver and muscle as glycogen. Starches fall into this category as well. Starches are found in plants usually in leaves and roots. An example of a starch is a potato. The body breaks down starches into sugars and then the body uses it for energy. Another important carbohydrate that can’t be digested is cellulose. Cellulose is aids in the passage of fecal matter through the intestinal tract and reduces the incidence of colon cancer.
-Lipids are a great source of energy and are also known for supplying the body with a layers of heat-conserving insulation. They are insoluble in water and are usually greasy, waxy, or oily. There are two important lipids that should come to mind. Triglycerides are known as fats and oils. These are found in animal fats. One of the best known steroids is cholesterol. It comes for the liver and lesser amounts come from diets.
-Proteins in food are broken down to amino acids in the small intestines, which are then used to make enzymes and hormones in the cells of the body and are absorbed in the bloodstream. In order to supply the body with all the amino acids people should consume complete proteins that can be found in milk or eggs.
*Micronutrients*
-Micronutrients consist of two basic things; vitamins and minerals. These two things can be found in veggies, fruits, meats, nuts, and seeds.
-Vitamins are only required in small quantities for normal metabolism. An overabundance and insufficiency of vitamins or minerals can have serious effects on the human health. When talking about vitamins they can be broken down into two categories; water-soluble and fat-insoluble. The water soluble ones are vitamin C and B complex. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K.
-Minerals can be broken down into two categories; trace minerals (these are minerals that are needed in small amounts) and major minerals (these are minerals that are needed in large amounts).
-There are many foods that are consumed by people that are considered to be unhealthy but there are a few foods that are considered to be beneficial and they are called functional foods. These foods have been used to reduce cholesterol and prevent some diseases. Some substances that are filled with benefits to the body are antioxidants. Eating foods rich in antioxidants have been known to reduce heart and artery disease. One example of an antioxidant is chocolate. My favorite! Yum! Another example of a food that is rich in antioxidants are fruits and vegetables. Antioxidants have also been used to help in cancer.
*Digestive System*
The digestive system is where food is broken down, filtered through, and dispersed throughout the body for nutrients and energy.
-Digestion begins when food is placed in the mouth. Salivary glands produce saliva which is used to help liquefy it. -Salation is stimulated by smells, tasting, smell, and sometimes even by thoughts of the favorites foods. This is an example of a nervous reflex in the body. Along with the chopping of the teeth food is pulverized and then swallowed. The tongue plays a major role in making this happen. Then the tongue pushes food to the back of the oral cavity into the pharynx.
-Food is then thrust into the esophagus (the food tube to the stomach) and the trachea or windpipe is right in front of it. So to prevent the food from heading down the wrong pipe the epiglottis is like the trapdoor closing the opening to the trachea. Swallowing is an involuntary act and then from there food moving through the body is automatic. Involuntary muscle contractions (called peristalsis) in the esophagus moves food through. The stomach produces pepsin which breaks proteins into peptides and hydrochloric acid which denatures protein allowing it to be acted on by enzymes. The stomach is regulated by neutral and hormonal mechanisms. The food is stored in the stomach and the opening to the stomach is covered by the sphincter. Gastric juices are produced in the stomach which helps to churn the food and turn it into a watery paste called chyme.
-Chyme leaves the stomach and then enters into the small intestines by peristaltic muscle contractions. The small intestines serves as a site to food digestion and absorption. The small intestines coil in the abdominal region that is about 6 meters long in adults. When thinking about the small intestines remember that the intestines are broken into three parts; the duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum. Enzymes are used to help break down large molecules into smaller molecules. In the walls of the small intestines are lacteals and they are used to absorb and move fats through the body. The pancreas is located beneath the stomach and is nestled in a loop formed by the first portion of the small intestines. This organ is has endocrine and exocrine functions. When functioning as an endocrine gland it produces enzymes and sodium bicarbonate that is used in digestion. Endocrine functioning takes place by producing hormones like insulin and glucagon that help keep homeostasis regulated. The pancreas produces juices and releases about 1 to 1.5 quarts into the small intestines EACH day! These secretions are often stimulated by hormones that are released in the small intestines. The liver carries out many functions in digestion. It is one of the largest and most versatile organ in the body. It has about 500 different jobs. It is protected by the rib cage and is located in the right side of your body just above the stomach. The liver helps to synthesize blood proteins that are used in blood clotting. It also filters out the foreign chemicals introduced into the body such as alcohol and nicotine. As well as producing an important substance called bile that is a fluid that is used in breaking down fats in the body. The gallbladder and the liver work hand in hand. After bile is produced in the liver it is then moved into the gallbladder where it is stored until it is needed in the small intestines.
-Intestinal Epithelium is what the lining of the intestines is called and it is what is needed to help the body absorb the necessary ingredients for the body to function properly. When talking about absorption and digestion there are three common mechanisms; diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
-The large intestines are primarily used for the transport of wastes (feces, the leftovers, the unabsorbed, unused, ingredients that the body doesn’t need) and the reabsorption of water. The large intestines are broken up into three main components; the cecum (the connector between the small and large intestines), appendix (wormlike structure that attaches to the cecum) , and colon (mainly what the large intestine is made up of). The colon then empties into the rectum.
*Respiratory System*
The main function of the respiratory system is to supply oxygen to the body and get rid of carbon dioxide. In order for successful breathing and repiration to take place there are a few key components in order to make this possible. It is not as simple as breathe in through the nose and blow out through the mouth. It is split into two primary activities that are happening which are; air conducting (transportation of air to the lungs) and gas-exchange (oxygen absorption and carbon dioxide release).
*Passageway of air*
-Mouth or nose>>pharynx>>larynx>>trachea>>bronchi>>lungs>>
-The first point of entry would either be through the nasal cavity or the oral cavity. The nasal and oral cavities take in air, then filters it, warms it, and moves it through to the pharynx. The oral cavity also helps to produce noise.
-Then off to the pharynx this is the funnel shaped structure that opens to the nose and mouth and opens below the larynx.
-The larynx is the voice box that holds the vocal cords, it also transports air to the trachea and it warms and fliters the air a little bit more.
-The epiglottis is vital here because as we are breathing this flap opens to allow air to pass through or when we are swallowing it covers the trachea so food does not get lodged. It is doorman of the body for food or oxygen.
-The larynx opens to the trachea or otherwise known as the windpipe.
-The trachea then divides into two large branches that are called the bronchi that go to the lungs. Air is continuing to be warmed throughout the whole process.
-The bronchioles control the air flow in the lungs and transport air to alveoli.
-The alveoli are small air sacs in the lungs. This is where oxygen exchange takes place in the blood stream. This gas exchange is aided by an important cell called the alveolar macrophage otherwise known as the dust cell. It is the clean up crew of the gas exchange process.
*Gas Exchange*
The respiratory system is a complex system of gas exchange. Air is brought into the body through the mouth. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are diffused across the alveolar walls and into the bloodstream.
-Oxygen diffuses into the blood plasma, and then into the red blood cells, where it binds to hemoglobin.
-Carbon dioxide is a leftover product of the gas exchange. Most of this gas gets wrapped up with the red blood cells and is then changed into carbonic acid. The carbonic acid then goes into the blood plasma.
*Breathing & the Control of Respiration*
Breathing is an involuntary action meaning we do not have to tell ourselves to breath in order to keep breathing and that is all controlled by the brain stem. That might be a problem during sleep.
-Nerve cells send impulses to the diaphragm and it contracts. This action causes the thoracic area to expand and draw in air through the mouth or nose. This action is called inhalation or inspiration.
-When the lungs fill completely then the muscles relaxed causing the air to be expelled, or otherwise known as expiration. Supplemental help can come fromt eh abdominal and chest muscles in order to completely exhale the air.
*Diseases of the Respiratory System*
Diseases of the respiratory system are common. Here are some examples of some diseases that occur in the respiratory system.
-Bacteria and viruses can infect many parts of the respiratory system. One that is common is bronchitis. This is an infection in the bronchi. Another is sinusitis which is an infection in the sinuses. When people lose there voice it is called laryngitis. This is caused by the inflammation of the lining of the larynx and vocal cords.
-Asthma it is an allergic response that inhibits the ability of breathing efficiently. Often times asthma is common among school aged children but as they grow into adulthood it often times disappears or the effects lessen. One of the most common treatments for asthma is an inhaler.
-Emphysema is another respiratory disease and it is caused by the breakdown of the alveoli which is caused by chemical irritants such as smoking and air pollution. There is no known cure for this disease.
-Lung cancer is another horrible disease in the respiratory system which is caused by smoking.
*Glucose Diffusion*
Glucose is the main ingredient that gets combined with oxygen in cellular respiration.
The first phase in cellular respiration in cells is called glycolysis.
-The main way that cells get ATP is through the Krebb’s cycle.
-Glucose diffuses through a protein pore in the cell membrane.
-Insulin is secreted into the blood by the pancreas and this usually happens after ingesting food. When the insulin is released this in turn causes the cells take in glucose and store it or use it in cellular metabolism. Glucose can be stored in the liver or muscles in the body and it is called glycogen.
When talking about abnormal functioning of either of these two processes occurs then that is when a person develops diabetes. There are two types of diabetes that are common among people.
-Diabetes type I is when a person’s pancreas is not producing insulin. This accounts for 5% to 10% of cases concerning diabetes.
-Diabetes type II is usually common among people who are overweight. This is when the cells don’t use insulin and in turn can’t use glucose. This accounts for 90% to 95% of cases of diabetes. -Gestational Diabetes is only a type of diabetes that pregnant women can get. This can develop in 2% to 5% of women who become pregnant.

CoMpeNdiUm PicTuRes: NutRitiOn, DigEstiOn, & ResPirAtioN

2008-03-09T20:09:00.000-07:00

The three pictures above are informational and tell about the different vitamins and minerals, their functions, and what foods contain a high content of them. Also, what conditions might arise if you consume too little or not enough of them. (power point)

The picture above is of carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion and how it moves into the bloodstream.

The picture above is of a starch cell. Pretty nifty huh? www.peoriaendocrine.com
The picture above shows the digestive system in the human body. Pointing out all of the important parts. www.nutrition.natural-remedies-clinic.co.uk

The picture above is of the travels of the respiratory system. sticksoffire.com

The picture above is the process of glucose metabolism.

This is a picture of insulin coming in and stimulating the cells to take up glucose. (power point)

The picture above is the Krebs Cycle. Showing th etravel from glucose to energy to chemical energy to electron transport to ATP. www.qensan.com

Compendium Pictures: Oxygen, Microbes, & Immunity: The Circulatory System

2008-03-08T22:18:00.000-08:00

The picture above gives you an idea of how busy the human body is and that is just the circulatory system. To the left of the picture it is showing the heart and teh different cavities and major arteries and veins.
www.poster.de

The picture above showing arteries & veins moving into the heart and leaving the heart going into the lungs and leaving.
http://www.texasheart.org/searchresults.cfm

The picture above is of blood vessels in the body. Each important part labeled.
thinkdifferent.typepad.com

The picture above is of the lymphatic system and its travels in green. Notice the lymph nodes under the armpits?
http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S020rSSMtHARABAXijzbkF/SIG=12eih7trp/EXP=1204591186/**http%3A//catalog.nucleusinc.com/enlargeexhibit.php%3FID=2615

Compendium Pictures:Oxygen, Microbes, & Immunity: Blood II

2008-03-08T21:46:00.001-08:00

The picture above is of plasma cells. I think they look quite interesting.
www.mcl.tulane.edu

The picture above is of red blood cells. Reminds me of a cough drop.
http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0201SSstHaDoBQAijzbkF/SIG=11u1rdm81/EXP=1204591570/**http%3A//www.mikecurtis.org.uk/ks2_Heart.htm

This is a picture above is of a white blood cell. It reminds me of a cottonball.
www.feedo.net

In the picture above it shows blood clotting before and after.
biomed.brown.edu

In the graph above shows the T cells marked in blue. The red line on the graph makes HIV on the rise. To the right. The end of the red line means death and the blue line is the journey of the T cell.

In the picture above it is what an electron micoscan of an HIV buddinf from a cultured lymphocyte.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS

Compendium: OxYgen, MicRobes, & ImmUnity

2008-03-08T21:30:00.001-08:00

Internal Body Maintenance
Table of Contents For
Oxygen, Microbes, & Immunity
I. Circulatory System (6) www.poster.de
A. The Heart
1. Pulmonary & Systematic Circuits
2. Heart Valves & Sounds
3. Heart Pacemaker, Heart Rate, & Electrical Activity
B. Blood Vessels
1. Arteries & Arterioles
2. Capillaries
3. Veins & Venules
C. Lymphatic System
1. Lymph Capillaries
D. Cardiovascular Diseases: Causes & Cures
II. The Blood
A. Blood Plasma
1. Blood Transport & Regulation
B. Red Blood Cells
1. Sickle Cell C. White Blood Cells
1. Function
2. Neutrophils, Monocytes, & Lymphocytes
3. Leukemia & Infectious Mononucleosis
D. Blood Clotting
1. Platelets
2. Blood Types
3. Blood Transfusion
E. Blood Viruses
1. AIDS

The body is made up of several organ systems. Without any one of these systems there would be a failure in our ability to function.
The circulatory systems consist of a series of vessels that transport blood to and from the heart and then throughout the whole body.
It is made up of to primary circuits; the pulmonary circuit and the systematic circuit.
The systematic circuit transports blood through the body not including the lungs.
The pulmonary circuit transports the blood to and from the lungs.

*The Heart*
One of the major organs in the circulatory system is the heart. It is a muscular organ that pumps blood all throughout the body. The heart is about the size of your very own fist.
-The inside of the heart is made up of three layers, the pericardium, myocardium, and the endocardium.
-The pericardium is a closed sac that forms around the heart and any of the larger vessels that come in and go our of the heart. This sac is filled with a watery fluid that helps in reducing the amount of fiction produced by the heart when it beats.
-The middle layer of the heart is called the myocardium and it is made up of muscle cells.
-The inner most layer of the heart is the endocardium and this is the part that lines the heart chambers.
So as blood is pumped into the heart it first enters into the inferior and superior vena cavae. These veins carry blood that has lost most of its oxygen to the cells tissues and organs straight into the atrium which is the upper chamber of the heart then into the lower chamber called the ventricle. When the right ventricle gets full the walls will contract and this action forces blood into the pulmonary arteries that head out to the lungs. Then the blood gets its fill of oxygen and heads back to the heart through the pulmonary veins and dumps it in to left ventricle which is the upper chamber of the left side of the heart. Once the blood fills up the left ventricle it then is forced into the aorta which is the largest artery in the body. It takes the oxygen rich blood from the heart to the cells and the tissues. The right and left ventricles fill at the same time both pumping the blood to the lungs and the rest of the body. The heart valves help control the flow of blood in the heart. The valves between the atria and ventricles are called artrioventricular valves. This valve consists of three flaps that are anchored to the inner walls of the ventricles by the chordac tendineae or slender cords. The right atrioventricular valve that is between the right ventricle and atrium is called the tricuspid valve because it has three flaps. The left atrioventricular valve is known as the bicuspid valve because it has two flaps. The heart valves are one way valves. Heart sounds are a direct result of the heart valves closing. The first sound is the atrioventricular valves. When the semi lunar valves shut the second heart sound is made. The right and left valves never close at the same time.
-The human body has a internal pacemaker that controls the heart rate. When thinking about controlling heart rate it is often external factors that regulate the pacemaker. There are also several hormones that control the heart. Whenever a person lifts a car or does something they might never be ale to do it is often said that it was “the adrenaline pumping.” Well this is produced in the adrenal glands that are right by the kidneys. Epinephrine is the formal name for the hormone produced when we experience stresses or exercise and when this production takes place the blood speeds up as well. When thinking about measuring the electrical activity in the heart it is often done by a ECG or EKG.
*Blood Vessels*
Blood vessels are the interconnected transportation of our body to either the lungs or the rest of the body. It is our underground subway system so to speak.
Arteries and arterioles takes oxygenated blood from the heart and then it branches out where needed throughout the body to different tissues and organs..
Arteries>>>Arterioles>>>Capillaries>>>Venules>>>Veins
-Capillaries allow the exchange of nutrients and wastes.
-Venuoles drain out the capillaries.
-Veins take the blood back to the heart.
-Veins and arteries are partners and typically run through the body side by side transporting the blood throughout the body.
-Blood pressure is the force the blood applies to the inside of the blood vessels. This may rise or lower according to the activity or stress that the person is under. Blood pressure is measured by a blood pressure cuff and it is placed on the upper part of the arm. When air is released out of the cuff that is when the blood pressure reading is available.
-There are two types of pressures that need to be considered when taking blood pressure.
-The systolic pressure (the higher number on top) is where the ventricles contract at the peak moment.
-The diastolic pressure (lower number or bottom) is when the heart relaxes to let the ventricles fill again.
*Lymphatic System*
The lymphatic system is a secondary system of vessels and glands that return excess fluid to the circulatory system and functionally relates to the immune system as well. It aids in draining interstitial fluid fromt eh body tissues and then moves it into the blood.
-In this system there are several key organs; lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and the tonsils. Most of these organs play a key role in helping the immune system.
-Lymph nodes are helpful in filtering out the bacteria, viruses, and other leftover debris from the lymph. In a normal body under perfect circumstances lymph is balanced out not producing more then it is eliminating. This balance of these fluids keeps the bodies organs from selling and causing complications.
*Cardiovascular Diseases: Causes & Cures*
When thinking about the heart keep in mind that there are many complications and life threatening diseases that can occur in the human body.
-Myocardial infarction or most commonly known as one of the two reasons that lead to a heart attack. This is where there is a blockage(s) or clot(s) in the arteries leading to the heart that deprives it of oxygen and nutrients that potentially leads to the damaging or killing of muscle cells. The blockage can occur from plaque otherwise known as atherosclerosis. Sometimes even before a heart attack is coming on a person may experience several weeks of angina. This is when pain is felt in the center of the chest and can span through a person’s back, throat and arms. This pain is caused by a reduction in oxygen in the myocardium.
-Fibrillation is another type of heart attack that can occur and this is when the heart muscles electrical controls are out of wack. It starts beating independently without direction. Without this coordination of heart beats and blood flow it makes the organ fail and this is known as cardiac arrest.
-Prevention is the best cure for heart attacks. In the blood pressure lab it was evident that is was important to have a proper diet, exercise regularly, and watch the alcohol consumption. One thing that was not controllable was the history of hypertension (high blood pressure). Hypertension occurs when the increase of blood pressure happens over a period of time without notice or treatment until it is too late. In addition to eating right, managing stress and even taking a regimented daily aspirin for extended periods of time can also help to prevent a heart attacks.
*The Blood*
Blood is made up of many key components; plasma and other formed elements, blood cells and platelets.
Some nifty blood facts:
1)It accounts for 80% of your total body weight
2)Plasma makes up 55% of the blood volume
3)Other formed elements 45%
4)Blood cells or hermocrits are effected by altitude & 5% higher for people living a mile above sea level.
5)In 20 droplets of blood it contains 5 BILLION red blood cells.
6)White blood cells make up 1% of the blood’s volume
*Blood Plasma*
-Plasma is light yellow in coloration and its used as a taxi cab for many important substances.
Plasma is packed with a punch! It is made up of gases (Nitrogen, Oxygen, & Carbon Dioxide), ions (Sodium, Chloride, & Calcium), nutrients (Glucose & Amino Acids), hormones, proteins, various wastes, and lipid molecules.
*Red Blood Cells*
Red blood cells are flexible cells that transports oxygenated blood by hemoglobin and carbon dioxide. Red blood cells are produced by stem cells in the bone marrow. These cells do not have a nuclei or organelles. The life span of RBCs is 120 days.
-Sickle cell anemia is a hereditary blood disease. It is more common among African Americans. Through studies conducted it has been found that those who have this disease usually don’t circum to malaria which is a common disease that kills 1.2 million people each year. The sickle cell anemia is a DNA mutation. The body normally carries two hemoglobin genes which in turn is the protein that carries oxygen. When the mutation occurs it means that inadequate oxygen is being produced in the cells. This deficiency causes the cells to warp like a sickle. The shape makes it difficult for the cells to move freely through the vessels. When getting lodged in the vessels this can cause a person immense pain and sick with a high fever.
*White Blood Cells* (leukocytes)
These guys are the main fighters of invaders in the human body. If foreign microorganisms enter the body WBCs are the first ones to arrive on the “scene.” They are produced in the bone marrow and circulate in the blood stream. But they most of their work outside of the bloodstream in the body tissues.
-The most abundant white blood cells are the Neurophiles. These cells are the first to arrive at the scene and begin engulfing the micoorganisms. The cells are drawn by chemicals that are emitted by the infected tissues.
-The second grouping of cells that go running are the monocytes otherwise known as the cleaning crew. These cells arrive at the infected area and begin to engulf the microorganisms, dead cells, cellular debris, and dead neutrophiles.
-The second most abundant white blood cells are the lymphocytes. These cells are the ones that basically blow the whistle and give the “go” to start the cells dispersement. There are two types of lymphocytes. The first one is the T cell or t lymphocyte. The T cells attack foreign cells like fungi, parasites, and tumor cells.
This is the T cell that the AIDS virus attacks. See more AIDS information below. The second type is the B cell or B lymphocyte. When these cells are activated they turn into another kind of cell known as a plasma cell. These cells synthesize and release antibodies, proteins that circulate in the blood and bind to foreign substances.
-Leukemia is a cancer that occurs in the white blood cells. Like with all cancers it is an increasingly outrageous multiplication and dividing of cells but this one is done with the WBCs in the bone marrow. This cancer occurs mainly in children. The only way to treat this cancer is to irradiate the bone marrow and inject it with a drug called incrusting. This drug assists in stopping the multiplying of cells. This drug now saves 3 out of every 4 children inflicted with this cancer. This drug was found in the rainforest in a small flower called the rosy periwinkle. I wonder how many other cures are in the rainforest waiting to be found?
*Blood Clotting*
Whenever there is an abrasion or cut blood clotting occurs.
-Platelets are a vital component in blood clotting. They are produced in the bone marrow by the fragmenting of a huge cell known as megakaryocytic. Platelets lack organelles and nuclei. Blood clotting is a reaction that is started with the release of a chemical in the walls of the blood vessels called thromboplastin. See breakdown of how blood clotting takes place as given in book.
1)Injury
2)Thromboplastin stimulates conversion of prothrombin, found in plasma, into thrombin
3)Thrombin then stimulates the conversion of the plasma protein fibrinogen into fibrin
4)The fibrin network captures RBCs & platelets
5)Platelets in the blood clot release platelet thromboplastin
6)which converts additional plasma prothrombin into thrombin
7)thrombin stimulates production of additional fibrin
-Blood types are figured out by the types of glycoprotein found in the red blood cell membranes.
These types are A, B, AB, & O. Serious complications can occur when blood types are not clearly matched.
-When blood transfusions are being done it is important to keep in mind not only the blood type but also the Rh factor. People can be Rh positive or Ph negative. Positive meaning the person carries the Rh antigen and negative meaning the person doesn’t.
*Blood Viruses*
AIDS stands for Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. It is believed to have started in Africa. AIDS starts with contracting HIV. This is where the T cells are attacked and killed by the virus. The T cells are the quarterbacks of the immune system. Imagine playing a football game without a quarterback. It is a breakdown in the immune system which in turn leads to leaving people with practically no ability to fight off anything from the common cold to flu. What might not have killed them before now is life threatening with the weakening of the immune system. There is no cure for AIDS. But there is a cocktail of prescription drugs that are available ot those who can afford it that gives many years of comfortable living.

Web practice quizzes

2008-02-28T21:53:00.001-08:00

These are a few of the quizzes taken online from the various weblinks for practice. I AcEd them!

Good Blood PreSSUre VS Bad Blood PreSSure

2008-02-28T21:35:00.000-08:00

The graph and the table above and below is where I only tested women and men whose blood pressure WAS compromised by one or more of the following: alcohol consumption, obesity, lack of exercise, a history of hypertension, or a salty diet!

The graph and the table above and below is where I only tested women and men whose blood pressure WAS NOT compromised by one or more of the following: alcohol consumption, obesity, lack of exercise, a history of hypertension, or a salty diet!

*Blood pressure questions and answers for the this lab*
1) State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
The problem with the relationship between that of age and gender in relation to blood pressure is that it often rises as a person ages. But it is not unheard of to have a healthy 50 year old man or female with a good blood pressure reading. It is based on weight, exercise, salt and alcohol intake, and medical history.
2)Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
I think that if you put all the people that had a history of hypertension, dietary intake had high amounts of salt, and lower exercise driven people together that the overall blood pressure for each individualized group would lower especially among women between the ages of 34 to 44. I think that by doing this there would be more of an averaged out reading of people’s blood pressure with the men and the women. If you look at the charts the women and men started out at the same level of systolic and diastolic pressures.
3) How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis?
The investigation screen could be used by taking out the people in the test that have the higher levels of blood pressure due to blood pressure concerns for their genetic history and daily activities or lack there of and then take the remaining people record their results and average them together to find out if it changed the results any. Good blood pressure versus bad according to what is thought to increase blood pressure.
What steps will you follow?
Take the previously recorded results and take out a number of people from each test that would be considered high risk blood pressure testers. By looking at their exercise levels, salt intake, obesity, alcohol consumption and a history of hypertension levels and then go from there. Also I will take the “good leftovers” and record them as well so that it is possible to compare the results.
What data will you record?
Both results by a graph and a table that I recorded. Both the people who were taken out of the study as well as the people left in the study. Basically high risk verses low risk blood pressure people involved. As you can see from the charts and graphs that are included in research for the blood pressure labs. Good graph and Good table are those where only people were calculated that DID NOT have a history of hypertension, alcohol consumption, lack of exercise, salty diets, and obesity.
4) Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
It appeared that the male and female readings tended to be about the same in the beginning. But as the men aged there blood pressure steadily rose and continued doing so. But the women had a same if not normal reading and then jumped up fast between the ages of 35-44. After the high peak the women’s blood pressure reading went on a decline. In my original charting and experiment.
But as you can see in other experiment by taking out high risk men & high risk women and then averaging the others the results seemed to still increase but not at the same alarming rate. Especially between the ages of 35-44 in women. But what I found interesting is that between the ages of 18-34 there were no women that were at “risk.” Meaning the women tested were not lacking in exercise, or participating in alcohol consumption, obese, high salty diets, or had a history of hypertension. I think this experiment could have been more accurate had the same people been used in each age bracket. Consistently testing the same people and recording results as they aged.
5) Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
The results supported my hypothesis because I thought the high blood pressure for women between the ages of 35 to 44 would be significantly lower and it was. Age and gender play and important role in the high or low aspects of blood pressure. But what also plays an important role in blood pressure is the family’s genealogy taking into account the blood pressure aspects and the salt intake. Like in the show, “School House Rocks,” you are what you eat!

6) During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Within the female ages ranging from 18-24 there was a woman whose blood pressure reading was 141 over 91. She immediately stood out from the others because she was young and 32 points higher then her friends in the group. I looked at her chart and she was only 3 lbs over her optimal weight which was not a big deal because 3lbs is nothing but when coupled with her history of hypertension and salt intake these were the breaking factors as to why her blood pressure was on the rise.
7) List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
I think that the history of hypertension had a lot to do with either genders blood pressure readings.
Being higher then necessary.
8) What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity is not a helpful factor if you are looking at trying to get your blood pressure lower but it alone is not the only reason for high blood pressure. Obesity coupled with a salty intake, lower exercise regiment or even a history of high blood pressure could all be contributing factors when trying to figure out why your blood pressure is not where you want it to be.

BlOOd PreSSure Graphs & Tables

2008-02-28T21:21:00.000-08:00

What you can see above are the blood pressures from both the men and the women that were involved in each experiment. In this experiment we tested 10 women and 10 men from each age group (5 in all ranging from 11 to 54)and asked them these questions: Do you consume alcohol, do you have a salty diet, do you exercise regularly, and do you have a history of hypertension? It is broken down on the graph and table by men and women separate, diastolic and systolic, and on the graph it is indicated by colored lines and made easy to read.

Genetics & Ethics Going Hand in Hand ??

2008-02-18T20:10:00.000-08:00

Genetic engineering, by definition, “the artificial manipulation of genes in which certain genes from one organism are removed and transferred to another organism of the same or a different species. This permits scientists to transfer important genes to improve species-- for example, to increase resistance to disease.” When I think of it I often reflect back to the movie, Jurassic Park. That was probably the first time I ever really saw anything like that. I thought there is no way that could be possible, after all, it is a science fiction movie, the key word being movie. But I was wrong. There are many cases in which scientific genetic engineering is taking place. But there is only one that is really heard of on television or even in the magazines or papers and that is cloning. So, whether it’s thought of as right or wrong, good or bad, I think we are limited by our knowledge regarding this issue. Regardless of what type of cloning is brought to mind geneticists seem to think it will be helpful and necessary in the future. There are a couple of different ways that cloning and recombinant DNA technology is being used or could be used in the future that may actually be beneficial.
Reproductive cloning is the most widely known cloning being done today. This type of cloning is the ability to reproduce an animal. The most popular one is the cloning of the sheep, Dolly. Reproductive cloning is achieved by taking the DNA of a sheep and generating another animal. To accomplish such feats all that are required is that DNA from the animal, you wish to replicate, be taken and put into the egg whose genetic material has been taken out. After that is done then what is needed is an electric charge to jump start the cell division. After it gets so big then the embryo is transferred into a surrogate to complete the development of the cloned animal. The cloned animals are not identical to the original. This technique, although some might find controversial, is actually when applied to the endangered species scenario is actually beneficial, in my opinion. But then again maybe it is the circle of life by which should not be messed with. The success rate of this type of cloning is not very good and is extremely expensive. Dolly, even though she was considered to be a success, she only lived about half the age of those sheep of the same breed and she had a few medical problems as well. Reproductive cloning can be used to reproduce better breeds of animals. Or plants that may produce better bigger fruit and nutrient rich vegetables.
Therapeutic cloning is another type of cloning that is being attempted. This is often times referred to as, “embryo cloning.” This is where the human embryos are formed for the basis of research. The objective is not to replicate humans but instead make stem cells. The harvesting of stem cells is what makes this important. It is thought that through further scientific study that scientists might be able to aid those stricken with Alzheimer’s, cancer, and Parkinson’s disease. These stem cells may then be used to help improve or even regenerate damaged cell areas. Therapeutic cloning may be also be used to generate cells into tissues and tissues into organs for transplants. Then the need for organ transplant would be lower and the ability to save human life could be higher. In order to clone a human embryo scientists have to gather up women’s’ eggs and then remove the genetic material. Once the genetic material is removed then a skin cell is put in and after is has divided multiple times they extract the stem cells. Stem cells are a glimmer of hope to help in the curing of these diseases that seem incurable.
Genetic engineering is not only limited to cloning but it branched out into couple of different branches. It is currently being used for mass producing vaccines and treatments necessary for people suffering from various abnormalities or infections. Some break through are growth hormones, insulin, and vaccines such as those needed to prevent hepatitis A, B, and C. A couple of other positive effects of recombinant DNA is the ability to use DNA probes. These are used to map human chromosomes, detect infectious diseases, and find genetic disorders.
Genetic engineering and biotechnology is a field that has a lot of potential. It ranges in benefits from plants and nutrition to health and infectious diseases. Cloning is a controversial concept that raises a lot of questions. It is still too early to tell the benefits of this journey. Until all the information and data is collected it is too early to tell if it is something that will be beneficial to future mankind.

Self Evaluation

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am proud of the genetics part of my assignment. I think that is probably because I really enjoyed learning about that aspect of the human body. Matching the dragons and punnet squares.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
I think I could have done better on DNA and RNA segment part of the cell model.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I think my overall grade for this unit should be an A. I think I put in the time and energy that was required and then some. I think this is a very demanding course and I persevered.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Test better on the quizzes and not ask so many questions…haha.
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
During the cell unit and the model building.
At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
During the blog set up and learning of all the techniques of how to copy and paste photos and all the technicalities.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
That the teacher seemed to be available for any of my hair brained questions.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
None.
What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
The importance and ultimately everything that the cell does for the body. It is absolutely amazing!

Cell says, "Homeostasis!"

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The cell is amazing. I know that there are probably better words to describe it but I can't think of one better. It is like a tiny town all wrapped up into teeny, tiny, microscopic anomoly. It is made up of an ecosystem of knowledge and power. Every piece within the cell has a specific function that if it is not done right would in turn, cause a catastrophy within the human body. The cell controls and contributes to every functioning instrument in the human body from impulses, to tissues, and organs. Without cells where would we be?

Mitosis! Interphase & Prophase

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First phase is called Interphase: DNA is replicated, RNA is synthesized, & chromosomes become double stranded.

2nd phase is called Prophase: Chromosomes condense envelop disappears, fibers form, and centrioles start to move towards opposite ends of the cell.

Mitosis! Metaphase!

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This is the phase in the cell cycle where the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.

Mitosis! Anaphase!

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This is where the chromosomes begin to separate!

Mitosis! Telophase!

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Chromosomes migrate and are pulled to the opposite ends of the cell. the cell is oblong shaped. A nuclear envelope forms and chromosomes begin to uncoil.

Mitosis: Cytokinesis

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The cytoplasm divides and now we have two cells with a nucleus each and all the things necessary to operate! The red part is the nucleus, blue part is the nucleus envelopes, and the orange colored circle is the nucleolus.

Step one in making the cell

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Step one... putting styrofoam in boal and covering with playdoh for cytoplasm and covering small bowl with pink playdoh and orange dots for the nucleus.Then layering the rest on!

The cell and conclusion!

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All the different parts of a cell

The cell model was a labor intensive assignment but nothing compared to what the cells in teh human body do on a daily basis. My kids watched me as I built the cell and had a blast going through all of the functions. It was fun going through the house like I was on a scavenger hunt! The cell is the super hero of the human body. It is the lean mean energy making machine! gimme a "C" gimme an "E" gimme a "L" gimme another "L" what's that spell??? AMAZING!

Labeled parts of the cell and the nucleus

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The cell and its parts at work!

Ingredents for making a Cell from things around the House!

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A bowl for the plasma membrane

Styrofoam for the cytoplasm

Playdoh for the colors for the nucleus, pores, & cytoplasm

Nesting material for the chromatin

Icing for the polysomes

scooper for the whole to put the nucleus

Rubber bands for the endoplasmic reticulum

Rubber bands with beads for the rough endoplasmic reticbulum

Small bowl for the nucleus

Blue Ric Rak for the golgi complex

Bottle caps for the lysosomes

Straw for the centrioles

Almond slices for the mitochondrion

Green beads for the ribosomes

Dog treats for the food vacuoles

Sprinkles for the microtubules

Plastic ring for the nucleolus

Twisted ribbon with designs on them for the flagella

Nucleus and Double Helix DNA

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This is a picture of the nucleus and the DNA as it appears before unzipping and allowing genetic information to be gathered.

DNA to RNA

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The pink circular object is the nucleus. and the dots that appear on it are the pores by which the mRNA comes and goes. The twisted yeallow objest is what DNA looks like before it is unzipped. The RNA is at the top binding with the DNA strand gathering genetic information. All of this is occuring inside the nucleus of the cell. The tRNA is bringing back and forth to the mRNA amino acids to help in binding.

mRNA to Ribosomes

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This is a picture of the mRNA freely moving out of the nucleus and over to the ribosomes. SOme are large and some are small but they are composed of ribosomal RNA and protein. Kinda like a taxi service!

mRNA to Proteins

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This is a picture of the ribosomes to the left and then what comes out after processing the mRNA which is protein for the cell!

Genetics Compendium # 2

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Let’s talk genes and not the kind that you wear!
DNA + chromosomes = Genes It is that simple! (see pic #7)
DNA is made up of a double stranded helix that are held together by hydrogen bonds. It looks like a spiral staircase. Each strand in the DNA contains all these tiny little molecules called nucleotides. These guys are made up of three even smaller molecules that are joined together by covalent bonds and they form what is called polynucleotide chains and they are held in place by the glue in cell life called hydrogen bonds. DNA has two special ingredients called purines and pyrimidines. In the DNA a coupling occurs when two complementary bases come together and that is called complementary base pairing. This action helps a great deal in the replication of DNA it makes sure that the right genetic information gets to the right place during cell division. During DNA replication the DNA untwirls itself and then lays flat so a template can be made for more DNA strands. Before a cell splits it has to make a two copies of itself that way it can divide into two identical cells. So in order for cells to duplicate themselves they have to wiggle loose the hydrogen bonds that are holding the double helix together with the complementary bases. So when the double helix strands pull apart it exposes the polynucleotide chains. So now they can make their own complementary nucleotides in the nucleus. With the help of an enzyme called DNA polymerase goes down the strand one nucleotide at a time and binds them together being careful to line them up perfectly with its complementary nucleotide. After all the matching and aligning is complete then the DNA synthesis is finished and each one of the DNA molecules has its own double helix. One with a new strand of DNA and the other with an old strand of DNA. When thinking about RNA just remember that there are three types of RNA that are involved in protein synthesis. First is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) , messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). Each one has an important job to perform during protein synthesis. What makes DNA different from RNA is that DNA has what is called a nucleotide called deoxyribose and RNA has a sugar ribose. The DNA is in the nucleus and the RNA is primarly in the cytoplasm. The messenger RNA is just that a messenger to the nucleus to take genetic information that is needed to make proteins. The transfer RNA is what binds specific amino acids and takes them to the messenger and puts them in the right location on the messenger and ribosomal RNA is just the component of the ribosome. RNA synthesis takes place on the DNA template in the nuclei of the cells. When the work is being done on the template of the DNA that is called transcription. This happens when the cell is going through the interphase cycle. When the DNA untwirls itself and comes apart this creates a template by which the RNA can be made. During RNA synthesis an enzyme called polymerase helps in aligning nucleotides and catalyzing the formation of the covalent bonds coming together to form a polynucleotide chain. This is when the RNA is complete. Then the DNA lets go of the RNA and seals the double helix back together. Then the RNA leaves the nucleus. The only difference between RNA and DNA protein synthesis is the adenine pairs with uracil on the DNA template.
Genetic expression controlled at four different levels. One to control chromosome level, two to control transcription, three to control after translation but before translation takes place and lastly to control translation. By controlling at the chromosomal level that means happens by coiling and uncoiling of chromatin. By controlling transcription that is done by repression induction enhancement. After transcription but before translation when this is happening there is a removal of introns and rearrangement of exons and lastly by controlling translation it means RNA is being masked. In translation mRNA is transferred to the cytoplasm and it hoards them and then spills them out during protein synthesis.

Chromosome>>to>>Gene>>during transcription>>mRNA>>during translation>>to>>Protein

During mitosis at the prophase stage the chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelop vanishes. The centrioles begin to divide and move to the opposite poles of the dividing cells. The spindle forms then start to form and attach to chromosomes. The next stage of cell cycle is the metaphase. During this phase the chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate of the dividing cell. The next phase is where the chromosomes begin to separate. The telephase takes place when the chromosomes being to move or pulled to the opposite poles. At this point a new nuclear envelope forms and the chromosomes uncoil. Then in the last bit of mitosis it is called cytokinesis. During this phase a cleavage furrow forms and deepens and the cytoplasm divides. That is nuclear division in a nut shell. (See pic # 8)
When mentioning genetic engineering and biotechnology start thinking about cloning. This is the ability to replicate an existing or extinct organism. Jurassic Park is not too far from the truth. An positive example of this being done was with the sheep Dolly. In recombinant DNA technology geneticists take away and move parts of the DNA from an organism and use an enzyme called restriction endonuclease. Then after the moving of the DNA another enzyme kicks into high gear called DNA ligase. This enzyme is used to seal it in place and that is what it takes to form an recombinant DNA molecule. This then contains DNA from two different organisms. In bacteria there are tiny circular strands of DNA called plasmids. Genes that are from another source considered to be foreign can be spliced into plasmids and then the plasmids carry the foreign gene can be put back into bacteria in the culture. When cells divide, the plasmids copy themselves and make many copies of genes and then they are cloned. Cloning produces many copies of foreign genes which can be helpful to genetic study especially with hormones. In reverse transcriptase geneticists can make many copies of DNA by taking mRNA from the cells making it into DNA. Gene multiplication can be done in many ways but the most popular way to do it by polymerase chain reaction. This happens when the DNA double helix is heated and then cools off. The enzymes are added to catalyze the formation of complementary DNA molecules. There are many ways that recombinant DNA has been used. The most important uses of recombinant DNA, in my opinion is in the making of vaccines. But by putting this technique many things can be mass produced like hormones and other proteins that can be used to treat a variety of disorders. One example of this at work is with mass producing from bacteria to aid crop growth or to cure diseases. Gene splicing is another use of recombinant technology and it is used to move genes from one organism to another making transgenetic organisms. They don’t look much different maybe just a bit bigger. This is being done in the plants arena. This helps in producing larger plants that produce more nutritious foods that are resistant to pesky pests and herbicides. In gene therapy, this type of technology could be used to even cure genetic diseases or abnormalities by inserting normal healthy human genes. Another way of using this type of technology are with DNA probes. DNA probes are small segments of genes that bind to same base pairs of small samples of DNA. Like those taken from various crimes scenes.
Human genome mapping is extremely important in to the future of science. This is the mapping and recording of chromosomes that is done to help in aid of finding out which genetic material is on what chromosome.
Cancer is a serious disease not to be taken likely. It is frightening to think that one out of every three people will contract the disease and one out of every four will die from it. It is a proven fact that 20% to 40% of cancers are contracted by pollutants at work or in the environment and the remaining 60% to 80% of cancers are contracted by smoking, diet, or natural causes. Cancer is a disease in which the cells uncontrollably multiply and divide often moving into other parts of the body. Malignant tumors are tumors that continue to grow and spread throughout the body and destroy organs. The spread of cells from one place to another from one organ to another is called metastasis. One group of mutations called the proto-oncogenes and that controls the functions related to cell replication. The other group of mutations is the tumor suppressor genes. These inhibit the growth of cells. Precancerous cells are those that are released partially from normal growth controls and many times they stay dormant or a long time. There are chemicals that are released by tissues to aid in this suppression they are called tissue factors.
There are many cancer treatments that re available to people. Some tumors can be removed through surgery and then be treated with chemotherapy and radiation treatments. But a lot of times it is dependent on where it tumor is located and whether or not the secondary tumors were found and removed. Secondary tumors are tumors that are found in different areas of the body sometimes in the lymph nodes or other places that might be difficult to find or surgically remove. There are many new treatments for cancer. Anticancer vaccines are given to people to in an effort help the body build antibodies and T cells to help attack tumors and eliminate existing tumors. Microspheres is another type of treatment it is where they take liposomes that contain cancer-killing chemicals or antibodies that are attached to chemotherapy and are used to attack the cancer at its source. It is like a dart throwing approach to hitting the bulls eye. Another type of treatment that is promising is attacking cancer by reducing the blood vessel development in the tumors which in turn stop the growth of the cancer. The formation of new blood vessels is called angiogenesis. These new blood vessels carry nutrients and growth factors necessary for the tumor to grow. Another way to help kill cancer cells is by blocking genes involved in cell respiration. Oncogenes are a mutated version of genes that regulate cell growth. Lastly treating cancer by light or lasers with a combination of drugs seems to be an effective treatment with come kinds of cancers. The most obvious way to help in treating cancer is by being checked by a doctor at the first signs or inclination that you might be thinking that there may be something wrong. Survival is highly likely outcome the earlier the treatments can begin. (see pic #9)
When talking about human reproduction there are two important components that are necessary in order to reproduce. The first one I am going to go over is the male reproduction system. (see pic #10)
The testes consists of two gonads. The testes are hanging from what is called the scrotum which a sack of skin that is attached to the body that helps maintain the right temperature of the testes. The testes produce sperm and male sex steroids. The epididymes is where the sperm is held until ejaculation. Ejaculation is a reflex control that is stimulated by neurons in the spinal cord. The vas deferntia move the sperm through the urethra. The sex accessory glands produce seminal fluid that nourish the sperm. The urethra is used to excrete the wastes and sperm to the outside of the body. The penis is an organ that is used for copulation. It contains erectile tissue and during intercourse or sexual arousal it fills with blood that makes it rigid. The most of the fluids that make up semen is produced by the accessory glands. Sperm is formed in seminiferous tubulos. Interstitial cells produce male sex steroids and primary testosterone. They also produce male hormones and can be found in spaces lying between the seminiferous tubules. Interstitial cells are large clumps of cells found in these tubules and they produce sex steroid hormones called androgens. The most important one in male reproduction is called testosterone. Testosterone stimulates sperm formation and it is also flowing through the bloodstream that can stimulate cellular growth in bones and muscles. It also is what stimulates facial hair growth, as well as body hair, and voice changing among men.
The female reproductive system is made up of two key features the reproductive tract and the external genitalia. (see pic # 11) The reproductive tract consists of 4 parts. The uterus which is used for the cradling of embryos or a fetus. There are also two uterine tubes or oviducts which transport sperm to the ova and then transport the fertilized ova to the uterus. The two ovaries produce ova or female gamete during ovulation and female sex steroids. The vagina is the primary place for sperm drop off and it is also called the birth canal. The external genitalia is made of two flaps of skin on each side of the vaginal opening that is referred to as the labia. The labia majora are the larger folds outside of the vaginal opening and the labia minora are the inner flaps right by the vaginal opening. Where the two flaps meet is called the clitoris. This is a very sensitive organ that when sexual arousal takes place it can become aroused and filled with blood. Almost like a miniature penis. Each month a woman after puberty with have what is called a menstrual cycle which is a series of changes in the ovaries, hormone levels, uterus, and endocrine system. This cycle on the average is about 28 days but it varies from woman to woman. The first half of the menstrual cycle is called the follicular phase and during this time the body starts to produce follicle growth and estrogen production. As the estrogen levels rise this causes the body to ovulate. The oocyte is expelled out and the follicle collapses into a corpus luteum (CL) and produces more estrogen and progesterone. (see pic # 12) If fertilization takes place then the CL breaks down but if the fertilization does happen then the embryo will stay there for about 6 months. During the menstrual cycle the uterine wall thickens preparing itself for a embryo and if that does not happen then the walls slough off the lining which is what is known as menstruation. Estrogen is like testosterone as it promotes the growth of genitalia, body hair growth, fat pockets in the areas of the breasts, hips and butt. Thanks. Some women have a problem with premenstrual syndrome or otherwise known as PMS. Later on in life women between the ages of 45 and 55 will stop ovulating, producing so much progesterone, and menstruating this is called menopause. Some of the symptoms of menopause occur because of the breakdown and lack of estrogen in the body. Some things that women might experience during this time are night sweats, irritability, depression, and hot flashes. Sounds like tons of fun to me! Sign me up!
There are many types of birth control that are available to people for both men and women. Basically it is any method that prevents the ability for the body to reproduce. There are two categories and they are contraception, and induced abortion. Of course there is the oldie but goodie which is abstinence that is a sure fire way to stay safe. There is surgical sterilization which is done by a tubule ligation which is where they cut the tubes that transport the ova which is on women only and then there is the vasectomy which is for the men and that is the cutting of the vas deferens. Women can also get matchstick size capsules implanted under the skin and they release a steady stream of progesterone that blocks the ovulation for months. Next is the birth control pills these pills tricks the body into thinking that it is pregnant. The least effective way of preventing pregnancy is by using the withdraw method which is removing the penis just before ejaculation. Lastly, there is the barrier birth control options for men and women which are the diaphragm, the condom, and the vaginal sponge. Of course abortion is an option for those who may become pregnant and not want to continue on with the pregnancy. This is a surgical termination of the pregnancy. There is also a pill that can be taken called the “morning after pill” and this pill prevents implantation.
Infertility is the inability to get pregnant. Lots of things can contribute to this problem. It could be a lack of sex, low sperm count, or the obstruction of the uterine tubes.
So from genetics to reproduction without the microscope and countless hours that scientists, doctors, and geneticists have spend pondering over the human body known of the information would be available today. With each day that passes the medical field is becoming more and more knowledgable about the diseases of the past, the flus of the future, the cures of tomorrow, and babies of yeaterday. Maybe with enough hard work and diligence maybe just maybe a push for a cure for some of the most heartbreaking of diseases can be found. Here is to tomorrows yesterday, and yesterdays future.

PIC # 7

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DNA + chromosomes= genes

PIC # 8

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Mitosis at work from power points

PIC # 9

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Brain cell tumor

http://www.cancer-info-guide.com/

PIC # 10

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Male reproductive parts with labels

http://www.chariho.k12.ri.us/

PIC # 11

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Reproductive parts for a better prespective

http://www.chariho.k12.ri.us/

PIC # 12

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Shows the link between meiosis to fertilization and back what a trip! (from power points)

Table of Contents for genetics, Reproduction & Cancer Compendium Review #2

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Table of Contents for Genetics

I. Genes

A. DNA & RNA Get to Work (pic #7)
1. DNA replication
2. RNA
3. RNA synthesis
B. Genes & how they work
C. Expressing the Genes
D. Mitosis (pic #8)

II. Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology

A. Cloning
B. Recombinant DNA Technology

1. Removing genes
2. Mass gene production
3. Producing Genes on mRNA
4. Polymerase Chain reaction

C. Appling recombinant DNA technology

1. Treating diseases
2. Vaccines
3. Transgenic organisms
4. Gene therapy
5. DNA probes
6. Mapping human Genome

III. Cancer

A. Benign & malignant tumors (pic # 9)

1. Metastasis
2. Mutations & cancer
3. Other causes for cancer

B. Cancer treatments

1. Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation
2. New treatments for cancer

IV. Human reproduction

A. Male reproduction (see PIC #10)

1. Testes
2. Sexual accessory glands
3. Interstitial cells and testosterone
4. Penis
5. Hormonal control of Male reproduction

B. Reproductive system (see pic # 11)

1. Female reproductive system
2. External genitalia
3. Ovaries
4. The menstrual cycle
5. Hormonal control of female reproduction
6. Effects of fertilization (see pic # 12)
7. Estrogen & pregesterone
8. Menopause

C. Birth Control

1. Contraception
2. Abortion

D. Infertility

PIC # 1

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PIC # 1
Homeostasis at work!
http://www.southtexascollege.edu/nilsson/4_GB_Lecture_figs_f/4_GB_16_Homeostasis_Fig_f/Homeostasis_TempControl.GIF

PIC # 2

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PIC # 2

An atom and its components!

http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm

PIC # 3

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PIC # 3 Bohr Model of H2O

Water molecules showing covalent bonds!

http://ghs.gresham.k.12.or.us?science/ps/sci/ibbio/chem/notes/chpt2/polar.htm

PIC # 4

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PIC # 4

The cell and its components!

http://kenpitts.net/bio/cells/animal_cell_labeled.gif

PIC # 5

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PIC # 5

Plasma membrane and its parts!

http://hfa.ups-tlse.fr/DACCOR/thematiques.htm

PIC # 6

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PIC # 6
The is the differnt types of muscles in tissues, zygotes, and sperm cells!

Cellular Compendium 1-4

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"Homeostasis is, by definition, “a condition of dynamic equilibrium within any biological or social system. It is achieved through a variety of automatic mechanisms that compensate for internal and external changes.” In Greek terms, homeo, means “the same” and stasis, means “standing.” An example of homeostasis is the body being able to maintain a body temperature of about 98.6 F." Despite exercising where the temperature rises and sleeping where the temperature lowers the body basically stays the same. This happens because of the internal and external changes and mechanisms that occur in the body. Human and organisms have similar characteristics. There are eight commonalities when that can be thought of when comparing humans and organisms. See PIC # 1
There are five major groups or kingdoms that are in existence.
It is broke down like this: The first prokaryotic cells were around about 3.5 billion years ago and the first eukaryotic cells were about 1.2 billion years ago.
1st cells bacteria like organisms monerans>>>1st nucleated cells protists>>>fungi>>>plants>>>animals
Characteristics of life, living things, and organisms:
1.) All organisms including humans are made of cells. All cells consist of molecules. All molecules are made of atoms which are nonliving particles.
2.) All can maintain themselves by using molecules and energy from their environment.
3.) All living things have a metabolism. These are chemical reactions in the organism’s cells and tissues. There are two types of reactions that occur called anabolic and catabolic reactions take place and this happens at a rate of about a million a second.
4.) Is homoestasis.
5.) All can go with the flow. Meaning whatever life throws at them they can adapt and overcome. 6.) All can reproduce and grow
7.) They all evolve. Adapt, grow and go.
8.) All are part of the Earth’s ecosystem
The scientific method is a scientific approach finding and obtaining information to prove or disprove something through experiments. It starts with a hypothesis which is an educated guess as to what you think might happen. Next is the experimenting. Testing the idea and then recording the data. Ending it up with a theory, based on scientific facts, or conclusions.
In order to better understand the inter-workings of a cell then I think it is important to look at the chemical make up of a cell. Matter is anything that has weight and takes up space. Matter if made of tiny particles called atoms. See PIC #2 There are three subatomic particles that make up an atom. In the center of the atom, which is the nucleus, are positive protons and neutral neutrons. Floating around the outside of the atom are the electrons, which are negative in charge, in the electron cloud. Elements are made of atoms. All elements are listed on a chart called the periodic table. The periodic table has all the elements broken down into 7 groups for classification: alkali metals, alkali earth metals, main groups, transition metals, intertransition, halogens, and nobel gases. The elements categorized by being metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. On the table there are numbers. The atomic number consists of the number of protons. The mass number consists of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic weight consists of the weighted number of its isotopes found on Earth.
Matter can be divided into two categories: pure substances & mixtures
Pure substances are divided into two categories: elements & compounds
Mixtures are divided into two categories: homogeneous & heterogeneous matter
All mixtures can be physically separated into pure substances
All elements can be combined chemically to form compounds
When atoms combine they form molecules and a compound is a substance that is made up of two or more substances. Chemical bonds are occurring when the molecules in an atom join. One kind of bond is an ionic bond. This is when one atom gains an electron and the other atom loses one. Sodium chloride is an example of this type of bond. The other kind of chemical bond is called a covalent bond. This is when an atom shares an electron with another atom. There are other types of covalent bonds such as the polar covalent and hydrogen bonds. The polar covalent bond is when atoms are sharing an electron but it is not balanced out. A hydrogen bond is a bond that forms between slightly charged atoms usually on different molecules like water molecules between the hydrogen and oxygen bonds.

Water is a very important aspect in our bodies and it is extremely important to cell growth and survival. The human body is made up of more then 2/3 water. Water is helpful in many ways. It aids in the breaking down of proteins, it is a lubricate, it helps in joint mobility, and transportation of wastes. See PIC #3
Acids and bases are another key component in the body. An acid is a substance that adds a hydrogen ion to a solution. A base is a substance that takes away a hydrogen ion from a solution. Both of these reactions help in regulating the body and making it chemically neutral. The PH scale is a scale that measures the acidity or basic substances and puts a rating on them. Another key component in helping to balance out things is called a buffer. It is usually found in things such as soil and water. If certain levels are high or low then the buffers will take hydrogen ions out or put them in where they are needed to help in balancing out the PH levels.
Some important molecules to think about thinking about biological molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, peptides, amino acids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are considered to be starch and blood sugar glucose. Both of which are used to produce energy for the cells. Lipids are considered to be fats and steroids. When thinking about cholesterol think lipids. This is an important component in cells it is used as insulation and can be found in snack foods and nuts, meats, and fried foods. All the yummy stuff.
Proteins >>made of>>amino acids>>made of>>peptides and they can be found in many meats like chicken or fish and also dairy products. Next are the nucleic acids and these guys are made up of long chains called nucleotides. This is where the DNA and genetic material is found in the cells. It makes up who we are!

When talking about cells thinking about microscopes is like peanut butter and jelly it goes hand in hand. Without a microscope seeing cells, bacteria, DNA or anything that can’t be seen with the naked eye would not be known about today. The microscope is made of a combination of lenses and light and both of these are used to aid in the magnification of any particular object. Microscopes fall into either one of two categories. The light microscope (uses light) or the electron (uses a beam of electrons) microscope. Both of these microscopes take tiny images and magnify them to the point of understanding. Electron microscopes can magnify an object up to 100, 000 times its size and the electron scanning microscope can make it to where the ability is there to see the object under 3D. See “HISTORY OF A MICROSCOPE” and “Me & my microscope,” “Let’s talk Microscope,”and “Just Cheeky” for more information, who founded it, how it works, and all the important parts.
“Human cells are the product of millions of years of evolution.“ When thinking about cells two things should come to mind See PIC #4 for cell parts ;
the nuclear and the cytoplasmic compartments.
The nuclear compartment is better known as the nucleus. It is the brain of the cell. It aids in structure formation and function.
The cytoplasmic compartment is like the cheese between the bread. The pieces of bread being the nucleus and the plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane is the outside later of the cell. It controls who goes in and what comes out. It is like the front door to the house.
In the cytoplamic area is a watery fluid that is made up of molecules, food, vitamins, wastes, dissolved gases and water and this is called the cytoplasm.
The cell has many structures that have particular functions and those are called the organelles.
Organelles and a brief description:
Endoplasmic reticulum: made up of tubes and bedazzled with ribosomes. It is where synthesis occurs in lysosomal enzymes and proteins for extracellular use.
Ribosomes: made of RNA and protein found in cytoplasm produces proteins and polysomes
Polysome: mRNA bound to ribosome where protein synthesis occurs.
Golgi complex: flattened sacs near the nucleus this sorts, packages and proteins produced on RER the grocery store of the cell.
Secretory vesicles: membrane- bound vesicles containing protein from RER repackaged by gogli complex the package contains protein hormones or enzymes and then it waits for the green light so he can release it.
Food vacuole: membrane bound vesicles containing yummy food for the cell and combines it with lysosomes.
Lysosome: round membrane bound structure holding enzymes for digestion It is like the stomach acid of the cell. Helping to break down the food vacuole materials.
Mitrochondria: round, long, or oval structures, it has a double membrane and the inner one has folds. Breaks down glucose
Cytoskeleton: it is a networking of microtubules and microfilaments in the cell. Supports the cell, moves molecules and organelles through the cell and bind enzymes.
Cilia: small projections in the cell membrane containing microtubules found only on certain cells not all and this helps to move certain materials along the surface of the cells.
Flagella: Microtubules found on only sperm cells to help move the sperms cells along
Centrioles: small cylindrical tubes arranged in 9 sets of 3. Not found in plants. Help organize spindles for cell division.
SEE PIC #5

The plasma membrane is made up of lipids, protein, and carbohydrates. The first part of the membrane in the plasma of cells is the phosopholipid. They look like lollipops with a charged head and an uncharged tail.
During membrane transport molecules are moved through the membrane in five different ways: Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions in and out of the cell from high concentrations to low concentrations.
Simple diffusion: movement of lipid-soluble chemicals moving through the membrane without assistance.
Facilitated diffusion: is where carrier proteins move molecules across the membrane from high to low concentration area. It is like the “crossing guard” to these molecules.
Active transport: movement of molecules across the membrane by facilitated diffusion and that has energy supplied by a special molecule called ATP that stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is an energy transporter.
Endocytosis: it takes care of molecules going into the cell. The phagocytosis eats the large particles like viruses and bacteria and the pinocytosis drinks down the extracellular fluids and dissolved materials.
Exocytosis: this kicks stuff out of the cell. By stuff, I mean, large molecules like protein hormones from the endocrine glands.
Osmosis: this is the diffusion of water across the plasma membrane. This comes from the greek word meaning “to push.”
Cellular respiration is achieved through the breakdown of glucose and this can be chemically in four basic steps.
The glycolysis is the first phase of cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm and it breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules. The transition reaction is the next phase in cellular respiration that occurs in the mitochondrian and one carbon atom is cleaved off the pyruvate. The citric acid cycle is the next phase of cellular respiration and this happens in the inner most layer of the mitochondrian compartment. In this compartment it completes the breakdown of glucose. In the last phase of cellular respiration is the electron transport. This also occurs in the innermost membrane of the mitochondrion and here electrons are given off during the citric acid cycle and glycolysis enters into the electron transport system. Enzymes are very important in the chemical reactions of all cells. Enzymes are controlled the cells and this helps speed up or slow down the metabolism.
Electron transport has to have oxygen to continue and without it it will stop working. When that happens cells have to have a back up. So they rely on fermentation and glycolysis to give them energy. Fermentation is a chemical reaction where pyruvate is changed into lactic acid. You can get lactic acid from different foods that you eat like yogurt, and cheese.

See PIC #6

Cells>>>combine to form>>>tissues>>>combine to form>>>organs

There are four major types of tissues that are found in humans.
The epithelium forms the lining or external coverin of the organs and also forms glands. The stomach is lined with epithelium. Glandular epithelia is made up of cells that all clump together to form the glands in the body. Epithelial tissues is a perfect example of biological principle that structure works with function. The skin is made up of several layers of cells. The top layer of skin is called the epidermis. This is one of our best barriers against disease, infection, and viruses. Connective tissue holds together organs and cells. There are specialized connective tissues in the body such as cartilage, bone, and blood. Next is the muscular tissues that are groups of cells that flex and contract when stimulated or necessary. There are three types of muscular tissues in the body. Skeletal muscles which are called this because it is often times connected to bones or the skeletal body. The cardiac muscle is a banded muscle that does not require voluntary control. An example of this type of muscle is the heart. It is not necessary to constantly think about the heart and its beating because it does it one its own. The smooth muscle is another muscular tissue and it is called this because it hasn’t any visible striations and it is involuntary. A place that you could fine these kinds of muscles would be in the intestines or uterus. The next tissue group to talk about is the nervous tissues. These are filled with cells that give move nerve impulses throughout the body. There are two types of nerve cells the conductive and nonconductive. The conductive nerve cells are also called neurons. This is what responds to different types of stimuli. If you touch a stove it is the nerve cells that respond that tell you that it is hot! Nonconductive cells are also known as neuroglia. These nerve cells are the watch dogs. They watch and guard our bodies against toxins.
The heath of humans is completely dependent of the daily maintence of homeostasis. Without it we would cease to exist. Many contributing factors can make or break the order of homeostasis. It is absolutely necessary for the survival that there be a healthy environment, manageable stress levels, as well as contributing factors in our atmosphere. Without cells there would not be a life as we see it now. The idea of everything in life is here for a reason is not far from the truth. From the smallest of organisms to the largest of animals they are all made up of one little thing called a cell. By which with the smallest disfunction can be easily disrupted and destroyed. The cycle of life is dependent on the circulation cellular functioning.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/genetics_cell.html for the picture

Table of Contents for Cells, Health, & Life Functions for Compendium Review

2008-02-13T12:56:00.000-08:00

Fundamental Elements in Life Function
Heath & Homeostasis & Cells At Work

I. Evolution & Characteristics of Life
A. Homeostasis (pic #1)
1. Five major kingdoms
B. Characteristics of Life
1. Eight commonalities of organisms
C. Scientific Method
1. Hypothesis
2. Experiment
3. Theory

II. Atoms and Particles

A. Atoms & Components
1. Parts that make up an atom
B. Periodic table & elements
2. Reading and understanding
C. Isotopes

III. Molecules

A. How atoms work (pic # 2)

B. Different Bonds with atoms

IV. Waters, Bases, Acids, and Buffers

A. Organic and inorganic Compounds

B. Water molecules & importance (see pic #3)

C. Acidic substances & Bases

D. Buffers & biological systems

V. Cell Life

A. Microscope & scientists
1. Two types of microscopes
2. Important people in discoveries
B. Nuclear & cytoplasmic compartments

C. Cell organelles structure & function (see pic #4)

1. Nucleus
2. Nucleolus
3. Endoplasmic reticulum
4. Ribosomes
5. Polysome
6. Golgi complex
7. Secretory vesicles
8. Food vacuole
9. Lysosome
10. Mitochondria
11. Cytoskeleton
12. Cilia
13. Flagella
14. Centrioles

D. Plasma membrane (see pic #5)

E. Plasma membrane transport

1. Simple diffusion
2. Faciltitated diffusion
3. Active trasport
4. Endocytosis
5. Exocytosis
6. Osmosis

F. Energy for Cells & Metabolism

1. Cellular respiration
2. Enzymes

G. Fermentation

VI. Cells to Organ Systems

A. Primary Tissues (see pic # 6)

1. Epithelium tissues
2. Muscle tissues
3. Nervous tissues
4. Connective tissues

B. Biological Rhythms

Genetics & Heredity

2008-02-11T19:12:00.000-08:00

"They are elementary particals which form the embryoare each drawn from the corresponding structure in the parent... so that in the offspring they will reflect and reproduce a resemblance to the parents." This was stated by Peter de Maupperuis in 1751.
Much of the knowledge heredity and genetics that was done early on was done by Gregor Mendel.
Traits that we posess as humans are passed down from our parents and family trees along the way. It was once thought that two parents with brown hair and big eyes would only produce children with the same characteristics but that is not the case. Sometimes these people would produce children with little eyes or red hair it was part of their genetic background. Some times the phenotype or outward appearance is not always expressed outwardly. Just like in the punnet square examples where the out come was (Gg heterozygous) and the (GG homozygous dominate) these both looked at from outward appearances appear dominate but are different in their genetic make-up. Everyone holds different variations of the genes which are called the alleles and just like in the dragon lab I was able to play with the alleles and manipulate them to attain the blue, legless, high flying, fire breathing dragon. When using the punnet square as a helper to figure out the outcome of the gametes into offspring the capital letter (G) denotes a dominate allele and the (g) denotes a recessive allele. You know the ole saying it takes two to tango well each person holds inside of themselves two genes for each trait one from the female and one from the male and dominance rules the course for action. For example, in the Fly punnet square as shown, the Gg is dominate and so is the GG. I really liked the labs on genetics. I thin kit is amazing that we have the abilities to predict the outcome of certain plants and animals by using these methods. With these abilities we are able to genetically mutate crops, flowers, and flies to fit into our basic needs.

Under no Uncertain TERMS

2008-02-11T18:36:00.000-08:00

What you are seeing here is an example of dominate verses recessive genes and how they can effect the color of a flower!

Some key terms that might be helpful!

1) Genotype: it is the genetic make-up of an organism. Please note that organisms may look alike but have different genotypes.

2) Phenotype: it is the outward appearance of an organism. In Mendel's pea plant experiment and from the picture of the flowers you can see that just because the flower looks purple does not mean that we can tell by looking at it what the genetic make-up of the flower actually is. Some flowers may be dominate (PP) or some may be (Pp) which when put into a punnet square can change the outcome of the flowers.

3) Alleles: alternative form of a gene. This is what I did in the dragon demonstration

4) Cross-over: exchange of chromatin by homologous chromosomes during prophase 1 of meiosis. Results in considerably more genetic variation in gametes and offspring. An example of this was when I used the punnet squares with different parents and found out their off spring.

5) Dominant: Adjective used in genetics to refer to an allele that is always expressed in heterozygotes. It is denoted by a capital letter. For example, in the punnet squares I had parents that were dominate heterozygous (Gg) and dominate homozygous (GG)

6) Recessive: this is best described as an allele of a gene that is expressed when the dominate factor is missing. For example, in the punnet square with the flies I mentioned the 1:2:1 ratio. the recessive genes were in the (ll) or otherwise known as the homozygous recessive flies.

7) Cross: this is what it is called when you take the two parents and produce their offspring. the process in which this happens is calling crossing. The punnet square is an example of this taking place. If only one trait is being considered in a genetic ,then it is a monohybrid. If two traits are being considered in a genetic cross, the cross is called a dihybrid.

DRaGonMaNiA!!

2008-02-11T15:22:00.001-08:00

As you can see this is the Dragon demonstration. It first started with two images and we had to match the bottom image to the top image. By clicking on each of the features ie wings, legs, horns, tail, scales, and picking either dominate or recessive determined how the dragon would turn out. To the right of the dragons what you are seeing are their chromosomes. Inside the chromosomes are the genetic material that give the specific characteristics to the dragon. What I did was change teh gene around by altering the alleles. In doing this I was able to duplicate the top dragon to a tee. Too bad he hasn't any legs!

Flies Offspring

2008-02-11T13:53:00.001-08:00

Scenerio #5

Punnet square in action!

We are crossing two flies together.

Both parents are heterozygous long winged flies

At first I thought they would all turn out heterozygous but I was wrong. Instead they turned out with a ratio of 1:2:1 meaning; that if there was 100 flies bred together in this manner that 25 of them would be (GG) or homozygous dominant, 50 of them would be (Gg) or heterozygous and the last 25 would be (gg) homozygous recessive. it is amazing to see all the possible scenerios that can be combined using the punnet squares.

Me & My Microscope

2008-02-07T08:41:00.000-08:00

The microscope was one of the best inventions in medicine that we have today. When we were kids I think at one point in time we all put a microscope on our wish list. The first time I ever used a microscope was when I was in 6th grade and we looked under the microscope at the water that came from our drinking fountain. Since then I have been hooked. It amazed me that all movement that I saw was from just a few droplets of water from an everyday source. It made me think how many other things am I ingesting in the air or otherwise that I can't see with the naked eye. It allows us to explore and adventure throughout the paths of medicine. We are able to look at cells in the human body to plant life and better define different strains of bacterias, viruses, or illnesses. We are able to use the microscope to find solutions, cures, or answer questions that are otherwise unknown. For example, why does the AIDS virus attack our T cells and how? Or what commonalities do people have that have alzheimers, or parkinsons? Or let's take it to a more simple thought we are able to see cells and how they divide and defend our body against viruses, bacteria, and other unknown. It does not just stop there either but the micorscope helps our pets too by looking at different specimens sandwiched between two thin pieces of glass. I have not given it much thought but where would the world of medicine be without the invention of the microscope. We are able to answer these questions and many others by slipping a slide under the microscope, adding some magnification, light, and intellegence. Take a look at just an ordinary cheek cell and tell me that the microscope is not amazing!

JUST Cheeky!

2008-02-03T17:49:00.000-08:00

I was able to look at these cheek cells under a microscope simulation meaning everything was done online. I found this microscope simulation extremely interesting. I have not ever experienced something like this and it has been a while since I have seen cheek cells under magnification. So what you are seeing in the picture above is cheek cells under 40X magnification.

Let's talk Microscope

2008-02-03T17:44:00.001-08:00

The compound microscope has two systems of lenses for different magnification. The microscope is made up of several parts that when worked simultaneously can reveal incredible images. The two types of system lenses for a microscope are the ocular and objective. The ocular lens is what you look through and the objective lens is what is closest to the specimen. Before we go any further it is important to know the different parts of the microscope.

Let’s start at the base of the microscope and work our way up.

*Base
This is what is at the bottom and supports the bottom of the microscope.

*Light Source
It give you the light that is necessary to view your specimen.

*Fine Adjustment knob
It moves the stage or body tube up and down to get a for a better more clear image/ fine tuning

*Course Adjustment knob
This knob moves the stage or body tube up or down to large adjustments

*Diaphragm
Controls the amount of light let in through the stage and slide

*Stage Clips
Holds the slide in place firmly so that it doesn’t move usually metal clips

*Arm
Supports the body tube and it is usually where you would carry it but don’t forget to use two

hands.

*Objective lens
These are the magnification lenses-4X, 10X, 40X, 100X etc.

*Revolving Nosepiece
This is what hold the objectives and can be circulated around to different magnification choices. They vary in lengths depending on the magnification objective.

*Body Tube
This tube keeps the correct distance between objectives and eye piece

*Ocular Lens
This is also referred to as the eye piece it has between 10X or 15X this is the piece that you look through to actually see the specimen.

To basic operations of a microscope

1) Use two hands to move you microscope to area of choice

2) Turn the noise piece to the lowest power objective

3) Take slide and place it on the stage and fasten into place with the stage clips

4) Turn the coarse objective lenses so that is moves towards the slide but don’t let them touch

5) Now look through the eyepiece and adjust the diaphragm for the best amount of light

6) Adjust the oculars until they line up the light

7) Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the image into sight

8) Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the clarity

9) At this time you can put more light in by using the diaphragm

10) The objective in the back is the one in use

HISTORY OF MICROSCOPE

2008-02-03T17:39:00.000-08:00

The microscope first originated back in 1595. The first two pioneers of this device were Hans and Zacharias Janssen. It was thought that Han’s Dad was the first person to actually design the very first microscope but his son took it to the finish line and produced a simplistic version of what we now call the microscope. It was only a tube with two lens and had minimal magnification. It was not until many years later that the microscope was improved upon. The next person to come into the realm of technological improvements regarding the compound microscope was Robert Hooke but that was not until around 1660. Within the next five years he was able to better explore the magnified world around us. He is noted for being the first person to describe the plant tissue that he saw under a microscope as being a cell. He was a brilliant inventor and intellectual. His imprints are left in various walks of history from planetary movement to the oxygenation in the respiratory system. Another important person in the history of the microscope was Anton Van Leeuwenhoek. He might not have been the inventor but he definitely made improvements and made it one of the best microscopes for this period of time. By looking under the microscope he was able to see “bacteria, protozoens, and prove the theory of blood circulation.”

1st blog

2008-01-28T22:08:00.000-08:00

My name is Courtney
I like many kinds of music from Bach to Lincoln Park
I want to be a nurse and this is one of the steps needed to get to that goal
I hope to better understand biology and figure out this whole internet thingy
I love the water beach, pool, or lake!
I have 4 dogs, a cat & 3 birds!
I am originally from North Carolina!