Compendium: OxYgen, MicRobes, & ImmUnity

Internal Body Maintenance
Table of Contents For
Oxygen, Microbes, & Immunity
I. Circulatory System (6) www.poster.de
A. The Heart
1. Pulmonary & Systematic Circuits
2. Heart Valves & Sounds
3. Heart Pacemaker, Heart Rate, & Electrical Activity
B. Blood Vessels
1. Arteries & Arterioles
2. Capillaries
3. Veins & Venules
C. Lymphatic System
1. Lymph Capillaries
D. Cardiovascular Diseases: Causes & Cures
II. The Blood
A. Blood Plasma
1. Blood Transport & Regulation
B. Red Blood Cells
1. Sickle Cell C. White Blood Cells
1. Function
2. Neutrophils, Monocytes, & Lymphocytes
3. Leukemia & Infectious Mononucleosis
D. Blood Clotting
1. Platelets
2. Blood Types
3. Blood Transfusion
E. Blood Viruses
1. AIDS

The body is made up of several organ systems. Without any one of these systems there would be a failure in our ability to function.
The circulatory systems consist of a series of vessels that transport blood to and from the heart and then throughout the whole body.
It is made up of to primary circuits; the pulmonary circuit and the systematic circuit.
The systematic circuit transports blood through the body not including the lungs.
The pulmonary circuit transports the blood to and from the lungs.

*The Heart*
One of the major organs in the circulatory system is the heart. It is a muscular organ that pumps blood all throughout the body. The heart is about the size of your very own fist.
-The inside of the heart is made up of three layers, the pericardium, myocardium, and the endocardium.
-The pericardium is a closed sac that forms around the heart and any of the larger vessels that come in and go our of the heart. This sac is filled with a watery fluid that helps in reducing the amount of fiction produced by the heart when it beats.
-The middle layer of the heart is called the myocardium and it is made up of muscle cells.
-The inner most layer of the heart is the endocardium and this is the part that lines the heart chambers.
So as blood is pumped into the heart it first enters into the inferior and superior vena cavae. These veins carry blood that has lost most of its oxygen to the cells tissues and organs straight into the atrium which is the upper chamber of the heart then into the lower chamber called the ventricle. When the right ventricle gets full the walls will contract and this action forces blood into the pulmonary arteries that head out to the lungs. Then the blood gets its fill of oxygen and heads back to the heart through the pulmonary veins and dumps it in to left ventricle which is the upper chamber of the left side of the heart. Once the blood fills up the left ventricle it then is forced into the aorta which is the largest artery in the body. It takes the oxygen rich blood from the heart to the cells and the tissues. The right and left ventricles fill at the same time both pumping the blood to the lungs and the rest of the body. The heart valves help control the flow of blood in the heart. The valves between the atria and ventricles are called artrioventricular valves. This valve consists of three flaps that are anchored to the inner walls of the ventricles by the chordac tendineae or slender cords. The right atrioventricular valve that is between the right ventricle and atrium is called the tricuspid valve because it has three flaps. The left atrioventricular valve is known as the bicuspid valve because it has two flaps. The heart valves are one way valves. Heart sounds are a direct result of the heart valves closing. The first sound is the atrioventricular valves. When the semi lunar valves shut the second heart sound is made. The right and left valves never close at the same time.
-The human body has a internal pacemaker that controls the heart rate. When thinking about controlling heart rate it is often external factors that regulate the pacemaker. There are also several hormones that control the heart. Whenever a person lifts a car or does something they might never be ale to do it is often said that it was “the adrenaline pumping.” Well this is produced in the adrenal glands that are right by the kidneys. Epinephrine is the formal name for the hormone produced when we experience stresses or exercise and when this production takes place the blood speeds up as well. When thinking about measuring the electrical activity in the heart it is often done by a ECG or EKG.
*Blood Vessels*
Blood vessels are the interconnected transportation of our body to either the lungs or the rest of the body. It is our underground subway system so to speak.
Arteries and arterioles takes oxygenated blood from the heart and then it branches out where needed throughout the body to different tissues and organs..
Arteries>>>Arterioles>>>Capillaries>>>Venules>>>Veins
-Capillaries allow the exchange of nutrients and wastes.
-Venuoles drain out the capillaries.
-Veins take the blood back to the heart.
-Veins and arteries are partners and typically run through the body side by side transporting the blood throughout the body.
-Blood pressure is the force the blood applies to the inside of the blood vessels. This may rise or lower according to the activity or stress that the person is under. Blood pressure is measured by a blood pressure cuff and it is placed on the upper part of the arm. When air is released out of the cuff that is when the blood pressure reading is available.
-There are two types of pressures that need to be considered when taking blood pressure.
-The systolic pressure (the higher number on top) is where the ventricles contract at the peak moment.
-The diastolic pressure (lower number or bottom) is when the heart relaxes to let the ventricles fill again.
*Lymphatic System*
The lymphatic system is a secondary system of vessels and glands that return excess fluid to the circulatory system and functionally relates to the immune system as well. It aids in draining interstitial fluid fromt eh body tissues and then moves it into the blood.
-In this system there are several key organs; lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and the tonsils. Most of these organs play a key role in helping the immune system.
-Lymph nodes are helpful in filtering out the bacteria, viruses, and other leftover debris from the lymph. In a normal body under perfect circumstances lymph is balanced out not producing more then it is eliminating. This balance of these fluids keeps the bodies organs from selling and causing complications.
*Cardiovascular Diseases: Causes & Cures*
When thinking about the heart keep in mind that there are many complications and life threatening diseases that can occur in the human body.
-Myocardial infarction or most commonly known as one of the two reasons that lead to a heart attack. This is where there is a blockage(s) or clot(s) in the arteries leading to the heart that deprives it of oxygen and nutrients that potentially leads to the damaging or killing of muscle cells. The blockage can occur from plaque otherwise known as atherosclerosis. Sometimes even before a heart attack is coming on a person may experience several weeks of angina. This is when pain is felt in the center of the chest and can span through a person’s back, throat and arms. This pain is caused by a reduction in oxygen in the myocardium.
-Fibrillation is another type of heart attack that can occur and this is when the heart muscles electrical controls are out of wack. It starts beating independently without direction. Without this coordination of heart beats and blood flow it makes the organ fail and this is known as cardiac arrest.
-Prevention is the best cure for heart attacks. In the blood pressure lab it was evident that is was important to have a proper diet, exercise regularly, and watch the alcohol consumption. One thing that was not controllable was the history of hypertension (high blood pressure). Hypertension occurs when the increase of blood pressure happens over a period of time without notice or treatment until it is too late. In addition to eating right, managing stress and even taking a regimented daily aspirin for extended periods of time can also help to prevent a heart attacks.
*The Blood*
Blood is made up of many key components; plasma and other formed elements, blood cells and platelets.
Some nifty blood facts:
1)It accounts for 80% of your total body weight
2)Plasma makes up 55% of the blood volume
3)Other formed elements 45%
4)Blood cells or hermocrits are effected by altitude & 5% higher for people living a mile above sea level.
5)In 20 droplets of blood it contains 5 BILLION red blood cells.
6)White blood cells make up 1% of the blood’s volume
*Blood Plasma*
-Plasma is light yellow in coloration and its used as a taxi cab for many important substances.
Plasma is packed with a punch! It is made up of gases (Nitrogen, Oxygen, & Carbon Dioxide), ions (Sodium, Chloride, & Calcium), nutrients (Glucose & Amino Acids), hormones, proteins, various wastes, and lipid molecules.
*Red Blood Cells*
Red blood cells are flexible cells that transports oxygenated blood by hemoglobin and carbon dioxide. Red blood cells are produced by stem cells in the bone marrow. These cells do not have a nuclei or organelles. The life span of RBCs is 120 days.
-Sickle cell anemia is a hereditary blood disease. It is more common among African Americans. Through studies conducted it has been found that those who have this disease usually don’t circum to malaria which is a common disease that kills 1.2 million people each year. The sickle cell anemia is a DNA mutation. The body normally carries two hemoglobin genes which in turn is the protein that carries oxygen. When the mutation occurs it means that inadequate oxygen is being produced in the cells. This deficiency causes the cells to warp like a sickle. The shape makes it difficult for the cells to move freely through the vessels. When getting lodged in the vessels this can cause a person immense pain and sick with a high fever.
*White Blood Cells* (leukocytes)
These guys are the main fighters of invaders in the human body. If foreign microorganisms enter the body WBCs are the first ones to arrive on the “scene.” They are produced in the bone marrow and circulate in the blood stream. But they most of their work outside of the bloodstream in the body tissues.
-The most abundant white blood cells are the Neurophiles. These cells are the first to arrive at the scene and begin engulfing the micoorganisms. The cells are drawn by chemicals that are emitted by the infected tissues.
-The second grouping of cells that go running are the monocytes otherwise known as the cleaning crew. These cells arrive at the infected area and begin to engulf the microorganisms, dead cells, cellular debris, and dead neutrophiles.
-The second most abundant white blood cells are the lymphocytes. These cells are the ones that basically blow the whistle and give the “go” to start the cells dispersement. There are two types of lymphocytes. The first one is the T cell or t lymphocyte. The T cells attack foreign cells like fungi, parasites, and tumor cells.
This is the T cell that the AIDS virus attacks. See more AIDS information below. The second type is the B cell or B lymphocyte. When these cells are activated they turn into another kind of cell known as a plasma cell. These cells synthesize and release antibodies, proteins that circulate in the blood and bind to foreign substances.
-Leukemia is a cancer that occurs in the white blood cells. Like with all cancers it is an increasingly outrageous multiplication and dividing of cells but this one is done with the WBCs in the bone marrow. This cancer occurs mainly in children. The only way to treat this cancer is to irradiate the bone marrow and inject it with a drug called incrusting. This drug assists in stopping the multiplying of cells. This drug now saves 3 out of every 4 children inflicted with this cancer. This drug was found in the rainforest in a small flower called the rosy periwinkle. I wonder how many other cures are in the rainforest waiting to be found?
*Blood Clotting*
Whenever there is an abrasion or cut blood clotting occurs.
-Platelets are a vital component in blood clotting. They are produced in the bone marrow by the fragmenting of a huge cell known as megakaryocytic. Platelets lack organelles and nuclei. Blood clotting is a reaction that is started with the release of a chemical in the walls of the blood vessels called thromboplastin. See breakdown of how blood clotting takes place as given in book.
1)Injury
2)Thromboplastin stimulates conversion of prothrombin, found in plasma, into thrombin
3)Thrombin then stimulates the conversion of the plasma protein fibrinogen into fibrin
4)The fibrin network captures RBCs & platelets
5)Platelets in the blood clot release platelet thromboplastin
6)which converts additional plasma prothrombin into thrombin
7)thrombin stimulates production of additional fibrin
-Blood types are figured out by the types of glycoprotein found in the red blood cell membranes.
These types are A, B, AB, & O. Serious complications can occur when blood types are not clearly matched.
-When blood transfusions are being done it is important to keep in mind not only the blood type but also the Rh factor. People can be Rh positive or Ph negative. Positive meaning the person carries the Rh antigen and negative meaning the person doesn’t.
*Blood Viruses*
AIDS stands for Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. It is believed to have started in Africa. AIDS starts with contracting HIV. This is where the T cells are attacked and killed by the virus. The T cells are the quarterbacks of the immune system. Imagine playing a football game without a quarterback. It is a breakdown in the immune system which in turn leads to leaving people with practically no ability to fight off anything from the common cold to flu. What might not have killed them before now is life threatening with the weakening of the immune system. There is no cure for AIDS. But there is a cocktail of prescription drugs that are available ot those who can afford it that gives many years of comfortable living.