These are a few of the quizzes taken online from the various weblinks for practice. I AcEd them!Thursday, February 28, 2008
Web practice quizzes
These are a few of the quizzes taken online from the various weblinks for practice. I AcEd them!
Good Blood PreSSUre VS Bad Blood PreSSure
The graph and the table above and below is where I only tested women and men whose blood pressure WAS compromised by one or more of the following: alcohol consumption, obesity, lack of exercise, a history of hypertension, or a salty diet!
The graph and the table above and below is where I only tested women and men whose blood pressure WAS NOT compromised by one or more of the following: alcohol consumption, obesity, lack of exercise, a history of hypertension, or a salty diet!
*Blood pressure questions and answers for the this lab*
1) State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
The problem with the relationship between that of age and gender in relation to blood pressure is that it often rises as a person ages. But it is not unheard of to have a healthy 50 year old man or female with a good blood pressure reading. It is based on weight, exercise, salt and alcohol intake, and medical history.
2)Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
I think that if you put all the people that had a history of hypertension, dietary intake had high amounts of salt, and lower exercise driven people together that the overall blood pressure for each individualized group would lower especially among women between the ages of 34 to 44. I think that by doing this there would be more of an averaged out reading of people’s blood pressure with the men and the women. If you look at the charts the women and men started out at the same level of systolic and diastolic pressures.
3) How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis?
The investigation screen could be used by taking out the people in the test that have the higher levels of blood pressure due to blood pressure concerns for their genetic history and daily activities or lack there of and then take the remaining people record their results and average them together to find out if it changed the results any. Good blood pressure versus bad according to what is thought to increase blood pressure.
What steps will you follow?
Take the previously recorded results and take out a number of people from each test that would be considered high risk blood pressure testers. By looking at their exercise levels, salt intake, obesity, alcohol consumption and a history of hypertension levels and then go from there. Also I will take the “good leftovers” and record them as well so that it is possible to compare the results.
What data will you record?
Both results by a graph and a table that I recorded. Both the people who were taken out of the study as well as the people left in the study. Basically high risk verses low risk blood pressure people involved. As you can see from the charts and graphs that are included in research for the blood pressure labs. Good graph and Good table are those where only people were calculated that DID NOT have a history of hypertension, alcohol consumption, lack of exercise, salty diets, and obesity.
4) Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
It appeared that the male and female readings tended to be about the same in the beginning. But as the men aged there blood pressure steadily rose and continued doing so. But the women had a same if not normal reading and then jumped up fast between the ages of 35-44. After the high peak the women’s blood pressure reading went on a decline. In my original charting and experiment.
But as you can see in other experiment by taking out high risk men & high risk women and then averaging the others the results seemed to still increase but not at the same alarming rate. Especially between the ages of 35-44 in women. But what I found interesting is that between the ages of 18-34 there were no women that were at “risk.” Meaning the women tested were not lacking in exercise, or participating in alcohol consumption, obese, high salty diets, or had a history of hypertension. I think this experiment could have been more accurate had the same people been used in each age bracket. Consistently testing the same people and recording results as they aged.
5) Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
The results supported my hypothesis because I thought the high blood pressure for women between the ages of 35 to 44 would be significantly lower and it was. Age and gender play and important role in the high or low aspects of blood pressure. But what also plays an important role in blood pressure is the family’s genealogy taking into account the blood pressure aspects and the salt intake. Like in the show, “School House Rocks,” you are what you eat!
6) During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Within the female ages ranging from 18-24 there was a woman whose blood pressure reading was 141 over 91. She immediately stood out from the others because she was young and 32 points higher then her friends in the group. I looked at her chart and she was only 3 lbs over her optimal weight which was not a big deal because 3lbs is nothing but when coupled with her history of hypertension and salt intake these were the breaking factors as to why her blood pressure was on the rise.
7) List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
I think that the history of hypertension had a lot to do with either genders blood pressure readings.
Being higher then necessary.
8) What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity is not a helpful factor if you are looking at trying to get your blood pressure lower but it alone is not the only reason for high blood pressure. Obesity coupled with a salty intake, lower exercise regiment or even a history of high blood pressure could all be contributing factors when trying to figure out why your blood pressure is not where you want it to be.
BlOOd PreSSure Graphs & Tables
What you can see above are the blood pressures from both the men and the women that were involved in each experiment. In this experiment we tested 10 women and 10 men from each age group (5 in all ranging from 11 to 54)and asked them these questions: Do you consume alcohol, do you have a salty diet, do you exercise regularly, and do you have a history of hypertension? It is broken down on the graph and table by men and women separate, diastolic and systolic, and on the graph it is indicated by colored lines and made easy to read.
Monday, February 18, 2008
Genetics & Ethics Going Hand in Hand ??
Genetic engineering, by definition, “the artificial manipulation of genes in which certain genes from one organism are removed and transferred to another organism of the same or a different species. This permits scientists to transfer important genes to improve species-- for example, to increase resistance to disease.” When I think of it I often reflect back to the movie, Jurassic Park. That was probably the first time I ever really saw anything like that. I thought there is no way that could be possible, after all, it is a science fiction movie, the key word being movie. But I was wrong. There are many cases in which scientific genetic engineering is taking place. But there is only one that is really heard of on television or even in the magazines or papers and that is cloning. So, whether it’s thought of as right or wrong, good or bad, I think we are limited by our knowledge regarding this issue. Regardless of what type of cloning is brought to mind geneticists seem to think it will be helpful and necessary in the future. There are a couple of different ways that cloning and recombinant DNA technology is being used or could be used in the future that may actually be beneficial.
Reproductive cloning is the most widely known cloning being done today. This type of cloning is the ability to reproduce an animal. The most popular one is the cloning of the sheep, Dolly. Reproductive cloning is achieved by taking the DNA of a sheep and generating another animal. To accomplish such feats all that are required is that DNA from the animal, you wish to replicate, be taken and put into the egg whose genetic material has been taken out. After that is done then what is needed is an electric charge to jump start the cell division. After it gets so big then the embryo is transferred into a surrogate to complete the development of the cloned animal. The cloned animals are not identical to the original. This technique, although some might find controversial, is actually when applied to the endangered species scenario is actually beneficial, in my opinion. But then again maybe it is the circle of life by which should not be messed with. The success rate of this type of cloning is not very good and is extremely expensive. Dolly, even though she was considered to be a success, she only lived about half the age of those sheep of the same breed and she had a few medical problems as well. Reproductive cloning can be used to reproduce better breeds of animals. Or plants that may produce better bigger fruit and nutrient rich vegetables.
Therapeutic cloning is another type of cloning that is being attempted. This is often times referred to as, “embryo cloning.” This is where the human embryos are formed for the basis of research. The objective is not to replicate humans but instead make stem cells. The harvesting of stem cells is what makes this important. It is thought that through further scientific study that scientists might be able to aid those stricken with Alzheimer’s, cancer, and Parkinson’s disease. These stem cells may then be used to help improve or even regenerate damaged cell areas. Therapeutic cloning may be also be used to generate cells into tissues and tissues into organs for transplants. Then the need for organ transplant would be lower and the ability to save human life could be higher. In order to clone a human embryo scientists have to gather up women’s’ eggs and then remove the genetic material. Once the genetic material is removed then a skin cell is put in and after is has divided multiple times they extract the stem cells. Stem cells are a glimmer of hope to help in the curing of these diseases that seem incurable.
Genetic engineering is not only limited to cloning but it branched out into couple of different branches. It is currently being used for mass producing vaccines and treatments necessary for people suffering from various abnormalities or infections. Some break through are growth hormones, insulin, and vaccines such as those needed to prevent hepatitis A, B, and C. A couple of other positive effects of recombinant DNA is the ability to use DNA probes. These are used to map human chromosomes, detect infectious diseases, and find genetic disorders.
Genetic engineering and biotechnology is a field that has a lot of potential. It ranges in benefits from plants and nutrition to health and infectious diseases. Cloning is a controversial concept that raises a lot of questions. It is still too early to tell the benefits of this journey. Until all the information and data is collected it is too early to tell if it is something that will be beneficial to future mankind.
Reproductive cloning is the most widely known cloning being done today. This type of cloning is the ability to reproduce an animal. The most popular one is the cloning of the sheep, Dolly. Reproductive cloning is achieved by taking the DNA of a sheep and generating another animal. To accomplish such feats all that are required is that DNA from the animal, you wish to replicate, be taken and put into the egg whose genetic material has been taken out. After that is done then what is needed is an electric charge to jump start the cell division. After it gets so big then the embryo is transferred into a surrogate to complete the development of the cloned animal. The cloned animals are not identical to the original. This technique, although some might find controversial, is actually when applied to the endangered species scenario is actually beneficial, in my opinion. But then again maybe it is the circle of life by which should not be messed with. The success rate of this type of cloning is not very good and is extremely expensive. Dolly, even though she was considered to be a success, she only lived about half the age of those sheep of the same breed and she had a few medical problems as well. Reproductive cloning can be used to reproduce better breeds of animals. Or plants that may produce better bigger fruit and nutrient rich vegetables.
Therapeutic cloning is another type of cloning that is being attempted. This is often times referred to as, “embryo cloning.” This is where the human embryos are formed for the basis of research. The objective is not to replicate humans but instead make stem cells. The harvesting of stem cells is what makes this important. It is thought that through further scientific study that scientists might be able to aid those stricken with Alzheimer’s, cancer, and Parkinson’s disease. These stem cells may then be used to help improve or even regenerate damaged cell areas. Therapeutic cloning may be also be used to generate cells into tissues and tissues into organs for transplants. Then the need for organ transplant would be lower and the ability to save human life could be higher. In order to clone a human embryo scientists have to gather up women’s’ eggs and then remove the genetic material. Once the genetic material is removed then a skin cell is put in and after is has divided multiple times they extract the stem cells. Stem cells are a glimmer of hope to help in the curing of these diseases that seem incurable.
Genetic engineering is not only limited to cloning but it branched out into couple of different branches. It is currently being used for mass producing vaccines and treatments necessary for people suffering from various abnormalities or infections. Some break through are growth hormones, insulin, and vaccines such as those needed to prevent hepatitis A, B, and C. A couple of other positive effects of recombinant DNA is the ability to use DNA probes. These are used to map human chromosomes, detect infectious diseases, and find genetic disorders.
Genetic engineering and biotechnology is a field that has a lot of potential. It ranges in benefits from plants and nutrition to health and infectious diseases. Cloning is a controversial concept that raises a lot of questions. It is still too early to tell the benefits of this journey. Until all the information and data is collected it is too early to tell if it is something that will be beneficial to future mankind.
Self Evaluation
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am proud of the genetics part of my assignment. I think that is probably because I really enjoyed learning about that aspect of the human body. Matching the dragons and punnet squares.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
I think I could have done better on DNA and RNA segment part of the cell model.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I think my overall grade for this unit should be an A. I think I put in the time and energy that was required and then some. I think this is a very demanding course and I persevered.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Test better on the quizzes and not ask so many questions…haha.
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
During the cell unit and the model building.
At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
During the blog set up and learning of all the techniques of how to copy and paste photos and all the technicalities.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
That the teacher seemed to be available for any of my hair brained questions.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
None.
What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
The importance and ultimately everything that the cell does for the body. It is absolutely amazing!
Cell says, "Homeostasis!"
The cell is amazing. I know that there are probably better words to describe it but I can't think of one better. It is like a tiny town all wrapped up into teeny, tiny, microscopic anomoly. It is made up of an ecosystem of knowledge and power. Every piece within the cell has a specific function that if it is not done right would in turn, cause a catastrophy within the human body. The cell controls and contributes to every functioning instrument in the human body from impulses, to tissues, and organs. Without cells where would we be?
Mitosis! Interphase & Prophase
First phase is called Interphase: DNA is replicated, RNA is synthesized, & chromosomes become double stranded.
2nd phase is called Prophase: Chromosomes condense envelop disappears, fibers form, and centrioles start to move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Mitosis! Metaphase!
This is the phase in the cell cycle where the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.
Mitosis! Telophase!
Chromosomes migrate and are pulled to the opposite ends of the cell. the cell is oblong shaped. A nuclear envelope forms and chromosomes begin to uncoil.
Mitosis: Cytokinesis
The cytoplasm divides and now we have two cells with a nucleus each and all the things necessary to operate! The red part is the nucleus, blue part is the nucleus envelopes, and the orange colored circle is the nucleolus.
Step one in making the cell
Step one... putting styrofoam in boal and covering with playdoh for cytoplasm and covering small bowl with pink playdoh and orange dots for the nucleus.Then layering the rest on!
The cell and conclusion!
All the different parts of a cell
The cell model was a labor intensive assignment but nothing compared to what the cells in teh human body do on a daily basis. My kids watched me as I built the cell and had a blast going through all of the functions. It was fun going through the house like I was on a scavenger hunt! The cell is the super hero of the human body. It is the lean mean energy making machine! gimme a "C" gimme an "E" gimme a "L" gimme another "L" what's that spell??? AMAZING!
Ingredents for making a Cell from things around the House!
A bowl for the plasma membrane
Styrofoam for the cytoplasm
Playdoh for the colors for the nucleus, pores, & cytoplasm
Nesting material for the chromatin
Icing for the polysomes
scooper for the whole to put the nucleus
Rubber bands for the endoplasmic reticulum
Rubber bands with beads for the rough endoplasmic reticbulum
Small bowl for the nucleus
Blue Ric Rak for the golgi complex
Bottle caps for the lysosomes
Straw for the centrioles
Almond slices for the mitochondrion
Green beads for the ribosomes
Dog treats for the food vacuoles
Sprinkles for the microtubules
Plastic ring for the nucleolus
Twisted ribbon with designs on them for the flagella
Nucleus and Double Helix DNA
This is a picture of the nucleus and the DNA as it appears before unzipping and allowing genetic information to be gathered.
DNA to RNA
The pink circular object is the nucleus. and the dots that appear on it are the pores by which the mRNA comes and goes. The twisted yeallow objest is what DNA looks like before it is unzipped. The RNA is at the top binding with the DNA strand gathering genetic information.
All of this is occuring inside the nucleus of the cell. The tRNA is bringing back and forth to the mRNA amino acids to help in binding.
All of this is occuring inside the nucleus of the cell. The tRNA is bringing back and forth to the mRNA amino acids to help in binding.
mRNA to Ribosomes
This is a picture of the mRNA freely moving out of the nucleus and over to the ribosomes. SOme are large and some are small but they are composed of ribosomal RNA and protein. Kinda like a taxi service!
mRNA to Proteins
Friday, February 15, 2008
Genetics Compendium # 2
Let’s talk genes and not the kind that you wear!
DNA + chromosomes = Genes It is that simple! (see pic #7)
DNA is made up of a double stranded helix that are held together by hydrogen bonds. It looks like a spiral staircase. Each strand in the DNA contains all these tiny little molecules called nucleotides. These guys are made up of three even smaller molecules that are joined together by covalent bonds and they form what is called polynucleotide chains and they are held in place by the glue in cell life called hydrogen bonds. DNA has two special ingredients called purines and pyrimidines. In the DNA a coupling occurs when two complementary bases come together and that is called complementary base pairing. This action helps a great deal in the replication of DNA it makes sure that the right genetic information gets to the right place during cell division. During DNA replication the DNA untwirls itself and then lays flat so a template can be made for more DNA strands. Before a cell splits it has to make a two copies of itself that way it can divide into two identical cells. So in order for cells to duplicate themselves they have to wiggle loose the hydrogen bonds that are holding the double helix together with the complementary bases. So when the double helix strands pull apart it exposes the polynucleotide chains. So now they can make their own complementary nucleotides in the nucleus. With the help of an enzyme called DNA polymerase goes down the strand one nucleotide at a time and binds them together being careful to line them up perfectly with its complementary nucleotide. After all the matching and aligning is complete then the DNA synthesis is finished and each one of the DNA molecules has its own double helix. One with a new strand of DNA and the other with an old strand of DNA. When thinking about RNA just remember that there are three types of RNA that are involved in protein synthesis. First is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) , messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). Each one has an important job to perform during protein synthesis. What makes DNA different from RNA is that DNA has what is called a nucleotide called deoxyribose and RNA has a sugar ribose. The DNA is in the nucleus and the RNA is primarly in the cytoplasm. The messenger RNA is just that a messenger to the nucleus to take genetic information that is needed to make proteins. The transfer RNA is what binds specific amino acids and takes them to the messenger and puts them in the right location on the messenger and ribosomal RNA is just the component of the ribosome. RNA synthesis takes place on the DNA template in the nuclei of the cells. When the work is being done on the template of the DNA that is called transcription. This happens when the cell is going through the interphase cycle. When the DNA untwirls itself and comes apart this creates a template by which the RNA can be made. During RNA synthesis an enzyme called polymerase helps in aligning nucleotides and catalyzing the formation of the covalent bonds coming together to form a polynucleotide chain. This is when the RNA is complete. Then the DNA lets go of the RNA and seals the double helix back together. Then the RNA leaves the nucleus. The only difference between RNA and DNA protein synthesis is the adenine pairs with uracil on the DNA template.
Genetic expression controlled at four different levels. One to control chromosome level, two to control transcription, three to control after translation but before translation takes place and lastly to control translation. By controlling at the chromosomal level that means happens by coiling and uncoiling of chromatin. By controlling transcription that is done by repression induction enhancement. After transcription but before translation when this is happening there is a removal of introns and rearrangement of exons and lastly by controlling translation it means RNA is being masked. In translation mRNA is transferred to the cytoplasm and it hoards them and then spills them out during protein synthesis.
Chromosome>>to>>Gene>>during transcription>>mRNA>>during translation>>to>>Protein
During mitosis at the prophase stage the chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelop vanishes. The centrioles begin to divide and move to the opposite poles of the dividing cells. The spindle forms then start to form and attach to chromosomes. The next stage of cell cycle is the metaphase. During this phase the chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate of the dividing cell. The next phase is where the chromosomes begin to separate. The telephase takes place when the chromosomes being to move or pulled to the opposite poles. At this point a new nuclear envelope forms and the chromosomes uncoil. Then in the last bit of mitosis it is called cytokinesis. During this phase a cleavage furrow forms and deepens and the cytoplasm divides. That is nuclear division in a nut shell. (See pic # 8)
When mentioning genetic engineering and biotechnology start thinking about cloning. This is the ability to replicate an existing or extinct organism. Jurassic Park is not too far from the truth. An positive example of this being done was with the sheep Dolly. In recombinant DNA technology geneticists take away and move parts of the DNA from an organism and use an enzyme called restriction endonuclease. Then after the moving of the DNA another enzyme kicks into high gear called DNA ligase. This enzyme is used to seal it in place and that is what it takes to form an recombinant DNA molecule. This then contains DNA from two different organisms. In bacteria there are tiny circular strands of DNA called plasmids. Genes that are from another source considered to be foreign can be spliced into plasmids and then the plasmids carry the foreign gene can be put back into bacteria in the culture. When cells divide, the plasmids copy themselves and make many copies of genes and then they are cloned. Cloning produces many copies of foreign genes which can be helpful to genetic study especially with hormones. In reverse transcriptase geneticists can make many copies of DNA by taking mRNA from the cells making it into DNA. Gene multiplication can be done in many ways but the most popular way to do it by polymerase chain reaction. This happens when the DNA double helix is heated and then cools off. The enzymes are added to catalyze the formation of complementary DNA molecules. There are many ways that recombinant DNA has been used. The most important uses of recombinant DNA, in my opinion is in the making of vaccines. But by putting this technique many things can be mass produced like hormones and other proteins that can be used to treat a variety of disorders. One example of this at work is with mass producing from bacteria to aid crop growth or to cure diseases. Gene splicing is another use of recombinant technology and it is used to move genes from one organism to another making transgenetic organisms. They don’t look much different maybe just a bit bigger. This is being done in the plants arena. This helps in producing larger plants that produce more nutritious foods that are resistant to pesky pests and herbicides. In gene therapy, this type of technology could be used to even cure genetic diseases or abnormalities by inserting normal healthy human genes. Another way of using this type of technology are with DNA probes. DNA probes are small segments of genes that bind to same base pairs of small samples of DNA. Like those taken from various crimes scenes.
Human genome mapping is extremely important in to the future of science. This is the mapping and recording of chromosomes that is done to help in aid of finding out which genetic material is on what chromosome.
Cancer is a serious disease not to be taken likely. It is frightening to think that one out of every three people will contract the disease and one out of every four will die from it. It is a proven fact that 20% to 40% of cancers are contracted by pollutants at work or in the environment and the remaining 60% to 80% of cancers are contracted by smoking, diet, or natural causes. Cancer is a disease in which the cells uncontrollably multiply and divide often moving into other parts of the body. Malignant tumors are tumors that continue to grow and spread throughout the body and destroy organs. The spread of cells from one place to another from one organ to another is called metastasis. One group of mutations called the proto-oncogenes and that controls the functions related to cell replication. The other group of mutations is the tumor suppressor genes. These inhibit the growth of cells. Precancerous cells are those that are released partially from normal growth controls and many times they stay dormant or a long time. There are chemicals that are released by tissues to aid in this suppression they are called tissue factors.
There are many cancer treatments that re available to people. Some tumors can be removed through surgery and then be treated with chemotherapy and radiation treatments. But a lot of times it is dependent on where it tumor is located and whether or not the secondary tumors were found and removed. Secondary tumors are tumors that are found in different areas of the body sometimes in the lymph nodes or other places that might be difficult to find or surgically remove. There are many new treatments for cancer. Anticancer vaccines are given to people to in an effort help the body build antibodies and T cells to help attack tumors and eliminate existing tumors. Microspheres is another type of treatment it is where they take liposomes that contain cancer-killing chemicals or antibodies that are attached to chemotherapy and are used to attack the cancer at its source. It is like a dart throwing approach to hitting the bulls eye. Another type of treatment that is promising is attacking cancer by reducing the blood vessel development in the tumors which in turn stop the growth of the cancer. The formation of new blood vessels is called angiogenesis. These new blood vessels carry nutrients and growth factors necessary for the tumor to grow. Another way to help kill cancer cells is by blocking genes involved in cell respiration. Oncogenes are a mutated version of genes that regulate cell growth. Lastly treating cancer by light or lasers with a combination of drugs seems to be an effective treatment with come kinds of cancers. The most obvious way to help in treating cancer is by being checked by a doctor at the first signs or inclination that you might be thinking that there may be something wrong. Survival is highly likely outcome the earlier the treatments can begin. (see pic #9)
When talking about human reproduction there are two important components that are necessary in order to reproduce. The first one I am going to go over is the male reproduction system. (see pic #10)
The testes consists of two gonads. The testes are hanging from what is called the scrotum which a sack of skin that is attached to the body that helps maintain the right temperature of the testes. The testes produce sperm and male sex steroids. The epididymes is where the sperm is held until ejaculation. Ejaculation is a reflex control that is stimulated by neurons in the spinal cord. The vas deferntia move the sperm through the urethra. The sex accessory glands produce seminal fluid that nourish the sperm. The urethra is used to excrete the wastes and sperm to the outside of the body. The penis is an organ that is used for copulation. It contains erectile tissue and during intercourse or sexual arousal it fills with blood that makes it rigid. The most of the fluids that make up semen is produced by the accessory glands. Sperm is formed in seminiferous tubulos. Interstitial cells produce male sex steroids and primary testosterone. They also produce male hormones and can be found in spaces lying between the seminiferous tubules. Interstitial cells are large clumps of cells found in these tubules and they produce sex steroid hormones called androgens. The most important one in male reproduction is called testosterone. Testosterone stimulates sperm formation and it is also flowing through the bloodstream that can stimulate cellular growth in bones and muscles. It also is what stimulates facial hair growth, as well as body hair, and voice changing among men.
The female reproductive system is made up of two key features the reproductive tract and the external genitalia. (see pic # 11) The reproductive tract consists of 4 parts. The uterus which is used for the cradling of embryos or a fetus. There are also two uterine tubes or oviducts which transport sperm to the ova and then transport the fertilized ova to the uterus. The two ovaries produce ova or female gamete during ovulation and female sex steroids. The vagina is the primary place for sperm drop off and it is also called the birth canal. The external genitalia is made of two flaps of skin on each side of the vaginal opening that is referred to as the labia. The labia majora are the larger folds outside of the vaginal opening and the labia minora are the inner flaps right by the vaginal opening. Where the two flaps meet is called the clitoris. This is a very sensitive organ that when sexual arousal takes place it can become aroused and filled with blood. Almost like a miniature penis. Each month a woman after puberty with have what is called a menstrual cycle which is a series of changes in the ovaries, hormone levels, uterus, and endocrine system. This cycle on the average is about 28 days but it varies from woman to woman. The first half of the menstrual cycle is called the follicular phase and during this time the body starts to produce follicle growth and estrogen production. As the estrogen levels rise this causes the body to ovulate. The oocyte is expelled out and the follicle collapses into a corpus luteum (CL) and produces more estrogen and progesterone. (see pic # 12) If fertilization takes place then the CL breaks down but if the fertilization does happen then the embryo will stay there for about 6 months. During the menstrual cycle the uterine wall thickens preparing itself for a embryo and if that does not happen then the walls slough off the lining which is what is known as menstruation. Estrogen is like testosterone as it promotes the growth of genitalia, body hair growth, fat pockets in the areas of the breasts, hips and butt. Thanks. Some women have a problem with premenstrual syndrome or otherwise known as PMS. Later on in life women between the ages of 45 and 55 will stop ovulating, producing so much progesterone, and menstruating this is called menopause. Some of the symptoms of menopause occur because of the breakdown and lack of estrogen in the body. Some things that women might experience during this time are night sweats, irritability, depression, and hot flashes. Sounds like tons of fun to me! Sign me up!
There are many types of birth control that are available to people for both men and women. Basically it is any method that prevents the ability for the body to reproduce. There are two categories and they are contraception, and induced abortion. Of course there is the oldie but goodie which is abstinence that is a sure fire way to stay safe. There is surgical sterilization which is done by a tubule ligation which is where they cut the tubes that transport the ova which is on women only and then there is the vasectomy which is for the men and that is the cutting of the vas deferens. Women can also get matchstick size capsules implanted under the skin and they release a steady stream of progesterone that blocks the ovulation for months. Next is the birth control pills these pills tricks the body into thinking that it is pregnant. The least effective way of preventing pregnancy is by using the withdraw method which is removing the penis just before ejaculation. Lastly, there is the barrier birth control options for men and women which are the diaphragm, the condom, and the vaginal sponge. Of course abortion is an option for those who may become pregnant and not want to continue on with the pregnancy. This is a surgical termination of the pregnancy. There is also a pill that can be taken called the “morning after pill” and this pill prevents implantation.
Infertility is the inability to get pregnant. Lots of things can contribute to this problem. It could be a lack of sex, low sperm count, or the obstruction of the uterine tubes.
So from genetics to reproduction without the microscope and countless hours that scientists, doctors, and geneticists have spend pondering over the human body known of the information would be available today. With each day that passes the medical field is becoming more and more knowledgable about the diseases of the past, the flus of the future, the cures of tomorrow, and babies of yeaterday. Maybe with enough hard work and diligence maybe just maybe a push for a cure for some of the most heartbreaking of diseases can be found. Here is to tomorrows yesterday, and yesterdays future.
DNA + chromosomes = Genes It is that simple! (see pic #7)
DNA is made up of a double stranded helix that are held together by hydrogen bonds. It looks like a spiral staircase. Each strand in the DNA contains all these tiny little molecules called nucleotides. These guys are made up of three even smaller molecules that are joined together by covalent bonds and they form what is called polynucleotide chains and they are held in place by the glue in cell life called hydrogen bonds. DNA has two special ingredients called purines and pyrimidines. In the DNA a coupling occurs when two complementary bases come together and that is called complementary base pairing. This action helps a great deal in the replication of DNA it makes sure that the right genetic information gets to the right place during cell division. During DNA replication the DNA untwirls itself and then lays flat so a template can be made for more DNA strands. Before a cell splits it has to make a two copies of itself that way it can divide into two identical cells. So in order for cells to duplicate themselves they have to wiggle loose the hydrogen bonds that are holding the double helix together with the complementary bases. So when the double helix strands pull apart it exposes the polynucleotide chains. So now they can make their own complementary nucleotides in the nucleus. With the help of an enzyme called DNA polymerase goes down the strand one nucleotide at a time and binds them together being careful to line them up perfectly with its complementary nucleotide. After all the matching and aligning is complete then the DNA synthesis is finished and each one of the DNA molecules has its own double helix. One with a new strand of DNA and the other with an old strand of DNA. When thinking about RNA just remember that there are three types of RNA that are involved in protein synthesis. First is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) , messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). Each one has an important job to perform during protein synthesis. What makes DNA different from RNA is that DNA has what is called a nucleotide called deoxyribose and RNA has a sugar ribose. The DNA is in the nucleus and the RNA is primarly in the cytoplasm. The messenger RNA is just that a messenger to the nucleus to take genetic information that is needed to make proteins. The transfer RNA is what binds specific amino acids and takes them to the messenger and puts them in the right location on the messenger and ribosomal RNA is just the component of the ribosome. RNA synthesis takes place on the DNA template in the nuclei of the cells. When the work is being done on the template of the DNA that is called transcription. This happens when the cell is going through the interphase cycle. When the DNA untwirls itself and comes apart this creates a template by which the RNA can be made. During RNA synthesis an enzyme called polymerase helps in aligning nucleotides and catalyzing the formation of the covalent bonds coming together to form a polynucleotide chain. This is when the RNA is complete. Then the DNA lets go of the RNA and seals the double helix back together. Then the RNA leaves the nucleus. The only difference between RNA and DNA protein synthesis is the adenine pairs with uracil on the DNA template.
Genetic expression controlled at four different levels. One to control chromosome level, two to control transcription, three to control after translation but before translation takes place and lastly to control translation. By controlling at the chromosomal level that means happens by coiling and uncoiling of chromatin. By controlling transcription that is done by repression induction enhancement. After transcription but before translation when this is happening there is a removal of introns and rearrangement of exons and lastly by controlling translation it means RNA is being masked. In translation mRNA is transferred to the cytoplasm and it hoards them and then spills them out during protein synthesis.
Chromosome>>to>>Gene>>during transcription>>mRNA>>during translation>>to>>Protein
During mitosis at the prophase stage the chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelop vanishes. The centrioles begin to divide and move to the opposite poles of the dividing cells. The spindle forms then start to form and attach to chromosomes. The next stage of cell cycle is the metaphase. During this phase the chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate of the dividing cell. The next phase is where the chromosomes begin to separate. The telephase takes place when the chromosomes being to move or pulled to the opposite poles. At this point a new nuclear envelope forms and the chromosomes uncoil. Then in the last bit of mitosis it is called cytokinesis. During this phase a cleavage furrow forms and deepens and the cytoplasm divides. That is nuclear division in a nut shell. (See pic # 8)
When mentioning genetic engineering and biotechnology start thinking about cloning. This is the ability to replicate an existing or extinct organism. Jurassic Park is not too far from the truth. An positive example of this being done was with the sheep Dolly. In recombinant DNA technology geneticists take away and move parts of the DNA from an organism and use an enzyme called restriction endonuclease. Then after the moving of the DNA another enzyme kicks into high gear called DNA ligase. This enzyme is used to seal it in place and that is what it takes to form an recombinant DNA molecule. This then contains DNA from two different organisms. In bacteria there are tiny circular strands of DNA called plasmids. Genes that are from another source considered to be foreign can be spliced into plasmids and then the plasmids carry the foreign gene can be put back into bacteria in the culture. When cells divide, the plasmids copy themselves and make many copies of genes and then they are cloned. Cloning produces many copies of foreign genes which can be helpful to genetic study especially with hormones. In reverse transcriptase geneticists can make many copies of DNA by taking mRNA from the cells making it into DNA. Gene multiplication can be done in many ways but the most popular way to do it by polymerase chain reaction. This happens when the DNA double helix is heated and then cools off. The enzymes are added to catalyze the formation of complementary DNA molecules. There are many ways that recombinant DNA has been used. The most important uses of recombinant DNA, in my opinion is in the making of vaccines. But by putting this technique many things can be mass produced like hormones and other proteins that can be used to treat a variety of disorders. One example of this at work is with mass producing from bacteria to aid crop growth or to cure diseases. Gene splicing is another use of recombinant technology and it is used to move genes from one organism to another making transgenetic organisms. They don’t look much different maybe just a bit bigger. This is being done in the plants arena. This helps in producing larger plants that produce more nutritious foods that are resistant to pesky pests and herbicides. In gene therapy, this type of technology could be used to even cure genetic diseases or abnormalities by inserting normal healthy human genes. Another way of using this type of technology are with DNA probes. DNA probes are small segments of genes that bind to same base pairs of small samples of DNA. Like those taken from various crimes scenes.
Human genome mapping is extremely important in to the future of science. This is the mapping and recording of chromosomes that is done to help in aid of finding out which genetic material is on what chromosome.
Cancer is a serious disease not to be taken likely. It is frightening to think that one out of every three people will contract the disease and one out of every four will die from it. It is a proven fact that 20% to 40% of cancers are contracted by pollutants at work or in the environment and the remaining 60% to 80% of cancers are contracted by smoking, diet, or natural causes. Cancer is a disease in which the cells uncontrollably multiply and divide often moving into other parts of the body. Malignant tumors are tumors that continue to grow and spread throughout the body and destroy organs. The spread of cells from one place to another from one organ to another is called metastasis. One group of mutations called the proto-oncogenes and that controls the functions related to cell replication. The other group of mutations is the tumor suppressor genes. These inhibit the growth of cells. Precancerous cells are those that are released partially from normal growth controls and many times they stay dormant or a long time. There are chemicals that are released by tissues to aid in this suppression they are called tissue factors.
There are many cancer treatments that re available to people. Some tumors can be removed through surgery and then be treated with chemotherapy and radiation treatments. But a lot of times it is dependent on where it tumor is located and whether or not the secondary tumors were found and removed. Secondary tumors are tumors that are found in different areas of the body sometimes in the lymph nodes or other places that might be difficult to find or surgically remove. There are many new treatments for cancer. Anticancer vaccines are given to people to in an effort help the body build antibodies and T cells to help attack tumors and eliminate existing tumors. Microspheres is another type of treatment it is where they take liposomes that contain cancer-killing chemicals or antibodies that are attached to chemotherapy and are used to attack the cancer at its source. It is like a dart throwing approach to hitting the bulls eye. Another type of treatment that is promising is attacking cancer by reducing the blood vessel development in the tumors which in turn stop the growth of the cancer. The formation of new blood vessels is called angiogenesis. These new blood vessels carry nutrients and growth factors necessary for the tumor to grow. Another way to help kill cancer cells is by blocking genes involved in cell respiration. Oncogenes are a mutated version of genes that regulate cell growth. Lastly treating cancer by light or lasers with a combination of drugs seems to be an effective treatment with come kinds of cancers. The most obvious way to help in treating cancer is by being checked by a doctor at the first signs or inclination that you might be thinking that there may be something wrong. Survival is highly likely outcome the earlier the treatments can begin. (see pic #9)
When talking about human reproduction there are two important components that are necessary in order to reproduce. The first one I am going to go over is the male reproduction system. (see pic #10)
The testes consists of two gonads. The testes are hanging from what is called the scrotum which a sack of skin that is attached to the body that helps maintain the right temperature of the testes. The testes produce sperm and male sex steroids. The epididymes is where the sperm is held until ejaculation. Ejaculation is a reflex control that is stimulated by neurons in the spinal cord. The vas deferntia move the sperm through the urethra. The sex accessory glands produce seminal fluid that nourish the sperm. The urethra is used to excrete the wastes and sperm to the outside of the body. The penis is an organ that is used for copulation. It contains erectile tissue and during intercourse or sexual arousal it fills with blood that makes it rigid. The most of the fluids that make up semen is produced by the accessory glands. Sperm is formed in seminiferous tubulos. Interstitial cells produce male sex steroids and primary testosterone. They also produce male hormones and can be found in spaces lying between the seminiferous tubules. Interstitial cells are large clumps of cells found in these tubules and they produce sex steroid hormones called androgens. The most important one in male reproduction is called testosterone. Testosterone stimulates sperm formation and it is also flowing through the bloodstream that can stimulate cellular growth in bones and muscles. It also is what stimulates facial hair growth, as well as body hair, and voice changing among men.
The female reproductive system is made up of two key features the reproductive tract and the external genitalia. (see pic # 11) The reproductive tract consists of 4 parts. The uterus which is used for the cradling of embryos or a fetus. There are also two uterine tubes or oviducts which transport sperm to the ova and then transport the fertilized ova to the uterus. The two ovaries produce ova or female gamete during ovulation and female sex steroids. The vagina is the primary place for sperm drop off and it is also called the birth canal. The external genitalia is made of two flaps of skin on each side of the vaginal opening that is referred to as the labia. The labia majora are the larger folds outside of the vaginal opening and the labia minora are the inner flaps right by the vaginal opening. Where the two flaps meet is called the clitoris. This is a very sensitive organ that when sexual arousal takes place it can become aroused and filled with blood. Almost like a miniature penis. Each month a woman after puberty with have what is called a menstrual cycle which is a series of changes in the ovaries, hormone levels, uterus, and endocrine system. This cycle on the average is about 28 days but it varies from woman to woman. The first half of the menstrual cycle is called the follicular phase and during this time the body starts to produce follicle growth and estrogen production. As the estrogen levels rise this causes the body to ovulate. The oocyte is expelled out and the follicle collapses into a corpus luteum (CL) and produces more estrogen and progesterone. (see pic # 12) If fertilization takes place then the CL breaks down but if the fertilization does happen then the embryo will stay there for about 6 months. During the menstrual cycle the uterine wall thickens preparing itself for a embryo and if that does not happen then the walls slough off the lining which is what is known as menstruation. Estrogen is like testosterone as it promotes the growth of genitalia, body hair growth, fat pockets in the areas of the breasts, hips and butt. Thanks. Some women have a problem with premenstrual syndrome or otherwise known as PMS. Later on in life women between the ages of 45 and 55 will stop ovulating, producing so much progesterone, and menstruating this is called menopause. Some of the symptoms of menopause occur because of the breakdown and lack of estrogen in the body. Some things that women might experience during this time are night sweats, irritability, depression, and hot flashes. Sounds like tons of fun to me! Sign me up!
There are many types of birth control that are available to people for both men and women. Basically it is any method that prevents the ability for the body to reproduce. There are two categories and they are contraception, and induced abortion. Of course there is the oldie but goodie which is abstinence that is a sure fire way to stay safe. There is surgical sterilization which is done by a tubule ligation which is where they cut the tubes that transport the ova which is on women only and then there is the vasectomy which is for the men and that is the cutting of the vas deferens. Women can also get matchstick size capsules implanted under the skin and they release a steady stream of progesterone that blocks the ovulation for months. Next is the birth control pills these pills tricks the body into thinking that it is pregnant. The least effective way of preventing pregnancy is by using the withdraw method which is removing the penis just before ejaculation. Lastly, there is the barrier birth control options for men and women which are the diaphragm, the condom, and the vaginal sponge. Of course abortion is an option for those who may become pregnant and not want to continue on with the pregnancy. This is a surgical termination of the pregnancy. There is also a pill that can be taken called the “morning after pill” and this pill prevents implantation.
Infertility is the inability to get pregnant. Lots of things can contribute to this problem. It could be a lack of sex, low sperm count, or the obstruction of the uterine tubes.
So from genetics to reproduction without the microscope and countless hours that scientists, doctors, and geneticists have spend pondering over the human body known of the information would be available today. With each day that passes the medical field is becoming more and more knowledgable about the diseases of the past, the flus of the future, the cures of tomorrow, and babies of yeaterday. Maybe with enough hard work and diligence maybe just maybe a push for a cure for some of the most heartbreaking of diseases can be found. Here is to tomorrows yesterday, and yesterdays future.
Table of Contents for genetics, Reproduction & Cancer Compendium Review #2
Table of Contents for Genetics
I. Genes
A. DNA & RNA Get to Work (pic #7)
1. DNA replication
2. RNA
3. RNA synthesis
B. Genes & how they work
C. Expressing the Genes
D. Mitosis (pic #8)
II. Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology
A. Cloning
B. Recombinant DNA Technology
1. Removing genes
2. Mass gene production
3. Producing Genes on mRNA
4. Polymerase Chain reaction
C. Appling recombinant DNA technology
1. Treating diseases
2. Vaccines
3. Transgenic organisms
4. Gene therapy
5. DNA probes
6. Mapping human Genome
III. Cancer
A. Benign & malignant tumors (pic # 9)
1. Metastasis
2. Mutations & cancer
3. Other causes for cancer
B. Cancer treatments
1. Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation
2. New treatments for cancer
IV. Human reproduction
A. Male reproduction (see PIC #10)
1. Testes
2. Sexual accessory glands
3. Interstitial cells and testosterone
4. Penis
5. Hormonal control of Male reproduction
B. Reproductive system (see pic # 11)
1. Female reproductive system
2. External genitalia
3. Ovaries
4. The menstrual cycle
5. Hormonal control of female reproduction
6. Effects of fertilization (see pic # 12)
7. Estrogen & pregesterone
8. Menopause
C. Birth Control
1. Contraception
2. Abortion
D. Infertility
I. Genes
A. DNA & RNA Get to Work (pic #7)
1. DNA replication
2. RNA
3. RNA synthesis
B. Genes & how they work
C. Expressing the Genes
D. Mitosis (pic #8)
II. Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology
A. Cloning
B. Recombinant DNA Technology
1. Removing genes
2. Mass gene production
3. Producing Genes on mRNA
4. Polymerase Chain reaction
C. Appling recombinant DNA technology
1. Treating diseases
2. Vaccines
3. Transgenic organisms
4. Gene therapy
5. DNA probes
6. Mapping human Genome
III. Cancer
A. Benign & malignant tumors (pic # 9)
1. Metastasis
2. Mutations & cancer
3. Other causes for cancer
B. Cancer treatments
1. Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation
2. New treatments for cancer
IV. Human reproduction
A. Male reproduction (see PIC #10)
1. Testes
2. Sexual accessory glands
3. Interstitial cells and testosterone
4. Penis
5. Hormonal control of Male reproduction
B. Reproductive system (see pic # 11)
1. Female reproductive system
2. External genitalia
3. Ovaries
4. The menstrual cycle
5. Hormonal control of female reproduction
6. Effects of fertilization (see pic # 12)
7. Estrogen & pregesterone
8. Menopause
C. Birth Control
1. Contraception
2. Abortion
D. Infertility
Thursday, February 14, 2008
Cellular Compendium 1-4
"Homeostasis is, by definition, “a condition of dynamic equilibrium within any biological or social system. It is achieved through a variety of automatic mechanisms that compensate for internal and external changes.” In Greek terms, homeo, means “the same” and stasis, means “standing.” An example of homeostasis is the body being able to maintain a body temperature of about 98.6 F." Despite exercising where the temperature rises and sleeping where the temperature lowers the body basically stays the same. This happens because of the internal and external changes and mechanisms that occur in the body. Human and organisms have similar characteristics. There are eight commonalities when that can be thought of when comparing humans and organisms. See PIC # 1
There are five major groups or kingdoms that are in existence.
It is broke down like this: The first prokaryotic cells were around about 3.5 billion years ago and the first eukaryotic cells were about 1.2 billion years ago.
1st cells bacteria like organisms monerans>>>1st nucleated cells protists>>>fungi>>>plants>>>animals
Characteristics of life, living things, and organisms:
1.) All organisms including humans are made of cells. All cells consist of molecules. All molecules are made of atoms which are nonliving particles.
2.) All can maintain themselves by using molecules and energy from their environment.
3.) All living things have a metabolism. These are chemical reactions in the organism’s cells and tissues. There are two types of reactions that occur called anabolic and catabolic reactions take place and this happens at a rate of about a million a second.
4.) Is homoestasis.
5.) All can go with the flow. Meaning whatever life throws at them they can adapt and overcome. 6.) All can reproduce and grow
7.) They all evolve. Adapt, grow and go.
8.) All are part of the Earth’s ecosystem
The scientific method is a scientific approach finding and obtaining information to prove or disprove something through experiments. It starts with a hypothesis which is an educated guess as to what you think might happen. Next is the experimenting. Testing the idea and then recording the data. Ending it up with a theory, based on scientific facts, or conclusions.
In order to better understand the inter-workings of a cell then I think it is important to look at the chemical make up of a cell. Matter is anything that has weight and takes up space. Matter if made of tiny particles called atoms. See PIC #2 There are three subatomic particles that make up an atom. In the center of the atom, which is the nucleus, are positive protons and neutral neutrons. Floating around the outside of the atom are the electrons, which are negative in charge, in the electron cloud. Elements are made of atoms. All elements are listed on a chart called the periodic table. The periodic table has all the elements broken down into 7 groups for classification: alkali metals, alkali earth metals, main groups, transition metals, intertransition, halogens, and nobel gases. The elements categorized by being metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. On the table there are numbers. The atomic number consists of the number of protons. The mass number consists of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic weight consists of the weighted number of its isotopes found on Earth.
Matter can be divided into two categories: pure substances & mixtures
Pure substances are divided into two categories: elements & compounds
Mixtures are divided into two categories: homogeneous & heterogeneous matter
All mixtures can be physically separated into pure substances
All elements can be combined chemically to form compounds
When atoms combine they form molecules and a compound is a substance that is made up of two or more substances. Chemical bonds are occurring when the molecules in an atom join. One kind of bond is an ionic bond. This is when one atom gains an electron and the other atom loses one. Sodium chloride is an example of this type of bond. The other kind of chemical bond is called a covalent bond. This is when an atom shares an electron with another atom. There are other types of covalent bonds such as the polar covalent and hydrogen bonds. The polar covalent bond is when atoms are sharing an electron but it is not balanced out. A hydrogen bond is a bond that forms between slightly charged atoms usually on different molecules like water molecules between the hydrogen and oxygen bonds.
Water is a very important aspect in our bodies and it is extremely important to cell growth and survival. The human body is made up of more then 2/3 water. Water is helpful in many ways. It aids in the breaking down of proteins, it is a lubricate, it helps in joint mobility, and transportation of wastes. See PIC #3
Acids and bases are another key component in the body. An acid is a substance that adds a hydrogen ion to a solution. A base is a substance that takes away a hydrogen ion from a solution. Both of these reactions help in regulating the body and making it chemically neutral. The PH scale is a scale that measures the acidity or basic substances and puts a rating on them. Another key component in helping to balance out things is called a buffer. It is usually found in things such as soil and water. If certain levels are high or low then the buffers will take hydrogen ions out or put them in where they are needed to help in balancing out the PH levels.
Some important molecules to think about thinking about biological molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, peptides, amino acids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are considered to be starch and blood sugar glucose. Both of which are used to produce energy for the cells. Lipids are considered to be fats and steroids. When thinking about cholesterol think lipids. This is an important component in cells it is used as insulation and can be found in snack foods and nuts, meats, and fried foods. All the yummy stuff.
Proteins >>made of>>amino acids>>made of>>peptides and they can be found in many meats like chicken or fish and also dairy products. Next are the nucleic acids and these guys are made up of long chains called nucleotides. This is where the DNA and genetic material is found in the cells. It makes up who we are!
There are five major groups or kingdoms that are in existence.
It is broke down like this: The first prokaryotic cells were around about 3.5 billion years ago and the first eukaryotic cells were about 1.2 billion years ago.
1st cells bacteria like organisms monerans>>>1st nucleated cells protists>>>fungi>>>plants>>>animals
Characteristics of life, living things, and organisms:
1.) All organisms including humans are made of cells. All cells consist of molecules. All molecules are made of atoms which are nonliving particles.
2.) All can maintain themselves by using molecules and energy from their environment.
3.) All living things have a metabolism. These are chemical reactions in the organism’s cells and tissues. There are two types of reactions that occur called anabolic and catabolic reactions take place and this happens at a rate of about a million a second.
4.) Is homoestasis.
5.) All can go with the flow. Meaning whatever life throws at them they can adapt and overcome. 6.) All can reproduce and grow
7.) They all evolve. Adapt, grow and go.
8.) All are part of the Earth’s ecosystem
The scientific method is a scientific approach finding and obtaining information to prove or disprove something through experiments. It starts with a hypothesis which is an educated guess as to what you think might happen. Next is the experimenting. Testing the idea and then recording the data. Ending it up with a theory, based on scientific facts, or conclusions.
In order to better understand the inter-workings of a cell then I think it is important to look at the chemical make up of a cell. Matter is anything that has weight and takes up space. Matter if made of tiny particles called atoms. See PIC #2 There are three subatomic particles that make up an atom. In the center of the atom, which is the nucleus, are positive protons and neutral neutrons. Floating around the outside of the atom are the electrons, which are negative in charge, in the electron cloud. Elements are made of atoms. All elements are listed on a chart called the periodic table. The periodic table has all the elements broken down into 7 groups for classification: alkali metals, alkali earth metals, main groups, transition metals, intertransition, halogens, and nobel gases. The elements categorized by being metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. On the table there are numbers. The atomic number consists of the number of protons. The mass number consists of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic weight consists of the weighted number of its isotopes found on Earth.
Matter can be divided into two categories: pure substances & mixtures
Pure substances are divided into two categories: elements & compounds
Mixtures are divided into two categories: homogeneous & heterogeneous matter
All mixtures can be physically separated into pure substances
All elements can be combined chemically to form compounds
When atoms combine they form molecules and a compound is a substance that is made up of two or more substances. Chemical bonds are occurring when the molecules in an atom join. One kind of bond is an ionic bond. This is when one atom gains an electron and the other atom loses one. Sodium chloride is an example of this type of bond. The other kind of chemical bond is called a covalent bond. This is when an atom shares an electron with another atom. There are other types of covalent bonds such as the polar covalent and hydrogen bonds. The polar covalent bond is when atoms are sharing an electron but it is not balanced out. A hydrogen bond is a bond that forms between slightly charged atoms usually on different molecules like water molecules between the hydrogen and oxygen bonds.
Water is a very important aspect in our bodies and it is extremely important to cell growth and survival. The human body is made up of more then 2/3 water. Water is helpful in many ways. It aids in the breaking down of proteins, it is a lubricate, it helps in joint mobility, and transportation of wastes. See PIC #3
Acids and bases are another key component in the body. An acid is a substance that adds a hydrogen ion to a solution. A base is a substance that takes away a hydrogen ion from a solution. Both of these reactions help in regulating the body and making it chemically neutral. The PH scale is a scale that measures the acidity or basic substances and puts a rating on them. Another key component in helping to balance out things is called a buffer. It is usually found in things such as soil and water. If certain levels are high or low then the buffers will take hydrogen ions out or put them in where they are needed to help in balancing out the PH levels.
Some important molecules to think about thinking about biological molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, peptides, amino acids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are considered to be starch and blood sugar glucose. Both of which are used to produce energy for the cells. Lipids are considered to be fats and steroids. When thinking about cholesterol think lipids. This is an important component in cells it is used as insulation and can be found in snack foods and nuts, meats, and fried foods. All the yummy stuff.
Proteins >>made of>>amino acids>>made of>>peptides and they can be found in many meats like chicken or fish and also dairy products. Next are the nucleic acids and these guys are made up of long chains called nucleotides. This is where the DNA and genetic material is found in the cells. It makes up who we are!
When talking about cells thinking about microscopes is like peanut butter and jelly it goes hand in hand. Without a microscope seeing cells, bacteria, DNA or anything that can’t be seen with the naked eye would not be known about today. The microscope is made of a combination of lenses and light and both of these are used to aid in the magnification of any particular object. Microscopes fall into either one of two categories. The light microscope (uses light) or the electron (uses a beam of electrons) microscope. Both of these microscopes take tiny images and magnify them to the point of understanding. Electron microscopes can magnify an object up to 100, 000 times its size and the electron scanning microscope can make it to where the ability is there to see the object under 3D. See “HISTORY OF A MICROSCOPE” and “Me & my microscope,” “Let’s talk Microscope,”and “Just Cheeky” for more information, who founded it, how it works, and all the important parts.
“Human cells are the product of millions of years of evolution.“ When thinking about cells two things should come to mind See PIC #4 for cell parts ;
the nuclear and the cytoplasmic compartments.
The nuclear compartment is better known as the nucleus. It is the brain of the cell. It aids in structure formation and function.
The cytoplasmic compartment is like the cheese between the bread. The pieces of bread being the nucleus and the plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane is the outside later of the cell. It controls who goes in and what comes out. It is like the front door to the house.
In the cytoplamic area is a watery fluid that is made up of molecules, food, vitamins, wastes, dissolved gases and water and this is called the cytoplasm.
The cell has many structures that have particular functions and those are called the organelles.
Organelles and a brief description:
Endoplasmic reticulum: made up of tubes and bedazzled with ribosomes. It is where synthesis occurs in lysosomal enzymes and proteins for extracellular use.
Ribosomes: made of RNA and protein found in cytoplasm produces proteins and polysomes
Polysome: mRNA bound to ribosome where protein synthesis occurs.
Golgi complex: flattened sacs near the nucleus this sorts, packages and proteins produced on RER the grocery store of the cell.
Secretory vesicles: membrane- bound vesicles containing protein from RER repackaged by gogli complex the package contains protein hormones or enzymes and then it waits for the green light so he can release it.
Food vacuole: membrane bound vesicles containing yummy food for the cell and combines it with lysosomes.
Lysosome: round membrane bound structure holding enzymes for digestion It is like the stomach acid of the cell. Helping to break down the food vacuole materials.
Mitrochondria: round, long, or oval structures, it has a double membrane and the inner one has folds. Breaks down glucose
Cytoskeleton: it is a networking of microtubules and microfilaments in the cell. Supports the cell, moves molecules and organelles through the cell and bind enzymes.
Cilia: small projections in the cell membrane containing microtubules found only on certain cells not all and this helps to move certain materials along the surface of the cells.
Flagella: Microtubules found on only sperm cells to help move the sperms cells along
Centrioles: small cylindrical tubes arranged in 9 sets of 3. Not found in plants. Help organize spindles for cell division.
SEE PIC #5
The plasma membrane is made up of lipids, protein, and carbohydrates. The first part of the membrane in the plasma of cells is the phosopholipid. They look like lollipops with a charged head and an uncharged tail.
During membrane transport molecules are moved through the membrane in five different ways: Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions in and out of the cell from high concentrations to low concentrations.
Simple diffusion: movement of lipid-soluble chemicals moving through the membrane without assistance.
Facilitated diffusion: is where carrier proteins move molecules across the membrane from high to low concentration area. It is like the “crossing guard” to these molecules.
Active transport: movement of molecules across the membrane by facilitated diffusion and that has energy supplied by a special molecule called ATP that stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is an energy transporter.
Endocytosis: it takes care of molecules going into the cell. The phagocytosis eats the large particles like viruses and bacteria and the pinocytosis drinks down the extracellular fluids and dissolved materials.
Exocytosis: this kicks stuff out of the cell. By stuff, I mean, large molecules like protein hormones from the endocrine glands.
Osmosis: this is the diffusion of water across the plasma membrane. This comes from the greek word meaning “to push.”
Cellular respiration is achieved through the breakdown of glucose and this can be chemically in four basic steps.
The glycolysis is the first phase of cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm and it breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules. The transition reaction is the next phase in cellular respiration that occurs in the mitochondrian and one carbon atom is cleaved off the pyruvate. The citric acid cycle is the next phase of cellular respiration and this happens in the inner most layer of the mitochondrian compartment. In this compartment it completes the breakdown of glucose. In the last phase of cellular respiration is the electron transport. This also occurs in the innermost membrane of the mitochondrion and here electrons are given off during the citric acid cycle and glycolysis enters into the electron transport system. Enzymes are very important in the chemical reactions of all cells. Enzymes are controlled the cells and this helps speed up or slow down the metabolism.
Electron transport has to have oxygen to continue and without it it will stop working. When that happens cells have to have a back up. So they rely on fermentation and glycolysis to give them energy. Fermentation is a chemical reaction where pyruvate is changed into lactic acid. You can get lactic acid from different foods that you eat like yogurt, and cheese.
During membrane transport molecules are moved through the membrane in five different ways: Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions in and out of the cell from high concentrations to low concentrations.
Simple diffusion: movement of lipid-soluble chemicals moving through the membrane without assistance.
Facilitated diffusion: is where carrier proteins move molecules across the membrane from high to low concentration area. It is like the “crossing guard” to these molecules.
Active transport: movement of molecules across the membrane by facilitated diffusion and that has energy supplied by a special molecule called ATP that stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is an energy transporter.
Endocytosis: it takes care of molecules going into the cell. The phagocytosis eats the large particles like viruses and bacteria and the pinocytosis drinks down the extracellular fluids and dissolved materials.
Exocytosis: this kicks stuff out of the cell. By stuff, I mean, large molecules like protein hormones from the endocrine glands.
Osmosis: this is the diffusion of water across the plasma membrane. This comes from the greek word meaning “to push.”
Cellular respiration is achieved through the breakdown of glucose and this can be chemically in four basic steps.
The glycolysis is the first phase of cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm and it breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules. The transition reaction is the next phase in cellular respiration that occurs in the mitochondrian and one carbon atom is cleaved off the pyruvate. The citric acid cycle is the next phase of cellular respiration and this happens in the inner most layer of the mitochondrian compartment. In this compartment it completes the breakdown of glucose. In the last phase of cellular respiration is the electron transport. This also occurs in the innermost membrane of the mitochondrion and here electrons are given off during the citric acid cycle and glycolysis enters into the electron transport system. Enzymes are very important in the chemical reactions of all cells. Enzymes are controlled the cells and this helps speed up or slow down the metabolism.
Electron transport has to have oxygen to continue and without it it will stop working. When that happens cells have to have a back up. So they rely on fermentation and glycolysis to give them energy. Fermentation is a chemical reaction where pyruvate is changed into lactic acid. You can get lactic acid from different foods that you eat like yogurt, and cheese.
See PIC #6
Cells>>>combine to form>>>tissues>>>combine to form>>>organs
There are four major types of tissues that are found in humans.
The epithelium forms the lining or external coverin of the organs and also forms glands. The stomach is lined with epithelium. Glandular epithelia is made up of cells that all clump together to form the glands in the body. Epithelial tissues is a perfect example of biological principle that structure works with function. The skin is made up of several layers of cells. The top layer of skin is called the epidermis. This is one of our best barriers against disease, infection, and viruses. Connective tissue holds together organs and cells. There are specialized connective tissues in the body such as cartilage, bone, and blood. Next is the muscular tissues that are groups of cells that flex and contract when stimulated or necessary. There are three types of muscular tissues in the body. Skeletal muscles which are called this because it is often times connected to bones or the skeletal body. The cardiac muscle is a banded muscle that does not require voluntary control. An example of this type of muscle is the heart. It is not necessary to constantly think about the heart and its beating because it does it one its own. The smooth muscle is another muscular tissue and it is called this because it hasn’t any visible striations and it is involuntary. A place that you could fine these kinds of muscles would be in the intestines or uterus. The next tissue group to talk about is the nervous tissues. These are filled with cells that give move nerve impulses throughout the body. There are two types of nerve cells the conductive and nonconductive. The conductive nerve cells are also called neurons. This is what responds to different types of stimuli. If you touch a stove it is the nerve cells that respond that tell you that it is hot! Nonconductive cells are also known as neuroglia. These nerve cells are the watch dogs. They watch and guard our bodies against toxins.
The heath of humans is completely dependent of the daily maintence of homeostasis. Without it we would cease to exist. Many contributing factors can make or break the order of homeostasis. It is absolutely necessary for the survival that there be a healthy environment, manageable stress levels, as well as contributing factors in our atmosphere. Without cells there would not be a life as we see it now. The idea of everything in life is here for a reason is not far from the truth. From the smallest of organisms to the largest of animals they are all made up of one little thing called a cell. By which with the smallest disfunction can be easily disrupted and destroyed. The cycle of life is dependent on the circulation cellular functioning.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/genetics_cell.html for the picture
Wednesday, February 13, 2008
Table of Contents for Cells, Health, & Life Functions for Compendium Review
Fundamental Elements in Life Function
Heath & Homeostasis & Cells At Work
I. Evolution & Characteristics of Life
A. Homeostasis (pic #1)
1. Five major kingdoms
B. Characteristics of Life
1. Eight commonalities of organisms
C. Scientific Method
1. Hypothesis
2. Experiment
3. Theory
II. Atoms and Particles
A. Atoms & Components
1. Parts that make up an atom
B. Periodic table & elements
2. Reading and understanding
C. Isotopes
III. Molecules
A. How atoms work (pic # 2)
B. Different Bonds with atoms
IV. Waters, Bases, Acids, and Buffers
A. Organic and inorganic Compounds
B. Water molecules & importance (see pic #3)
C. Acidic substances & Bases
D. Buffers & biological systems
V. Cell Life
A. Microscope & scientists
1. Two types of microscopes
2. Important people in discoveries
B. Nuclear & cytoplasmic compartments
C. Cell organelles structure & function (see pic #4)
1. Nucleus
2. Nucleolus
3. Endoplasmic reticulum
4. Ribosomes
5. Polysome
6. Golgi complex
7. Secretory vesicles
8. Food vacuole
9. Lysosome
10. Mitochondria
11. Cytoskeleton
12. Cilia
13. Flagella
14. Centrioles
D. Plasma membrane (see pic #5)
E. Plasma membrane transport
1. Simple diffusion
2. Faciltitated diffusion
3. Active trasport
4. Endocytosis
5. Exocytosis
6. Osmosis
F. Energy for Cells & Metabolism
1. Cellular respiration
2. Enzymes
G. Fermentation
VI. Cells to Organ Systems
A. Primary Tissues (see pic # 6)
1. Epithelium tissues
2. Muscle tissues
3. Nervous tissues
4. Connective tissues
B. Biological Rhythms
Heath & Homeostasis & Cells At Work
I. Evolution & Characteristics of Life
A. Homeostasis (pic #1)
1. Five major kingdoms
B. Characteristics of Life
1. Eight commonalities of organisms
C. Scientific Method
1. Hypothesis
2. Experiment
3. Theory
II. Atoms and Particles
A. Atoms & Components
1. Parts that make up an atom
B. Periodic table & elements
2. Reading and understanding
C. Isotopes
III. Molecules
A. How atoms work (pic # 2)
B. Different Bonds with atoms
IV. Waters, Bases, Acids, and Buffers
A. Organic and inorganic Compounds
B. Water molecules & importance (see pic #3)
C. Acidic substances & Bases
D. Buffers & biological systems
V. Cell Life
A. Microscope & scientists
1. Two types of microscopes
2. Important people in discoveries
B. Nuclear & cytoplasmic compartments
C. Cell organelles structure & function (see pic #4)
1. Nucleus
2. Nucleolus
3. Endoplasmic reticulum
4. Ribosomes
5. Polysome
6. Golgi complex
7. Secretory vesicles
8. Food vacuole
9. Lysosome
10. Mitochondria
11. Cytoskeleton
12. Cilia
13. Flagella
14. Centrioles
D. Plasma membrane (see pic #5)
E. Plasma membrane transport
1. Simple diffusion
2. Faciltitated diffusion
3. Active trasport
4. Endocytosis
5. Exocytosis
6. Osmosis
F. Energy for Cells & Metabolism
1. Cellular respiration
2. Enzymes
G. Fermentation
VI. Cells to Organ Systems
A. Primary Tissues (see pic # 6)
1. Epithelium tissues
2. Muscle tissues
3. Nervous tissues
4. Connective tissues
B. Biological Rhythms
Monday, February 11, 2008
Genetics & Heredity
"They are elementary particals which form the embryoare each drawn from the corresponding structure in the parent... so that in the offspring they will reflect and reproduce a resemblance to the parents." This was stated by Peter de Maupperuis in 1751.
Much of the knowledge heredity and genetics that was done early on was done by Gregor Mendel.
Traits that we posess as humans are passed down from our parents and family trees along the way. It was once thought that two parents with brown hair and big eyes would only produce children with the same characteristics but that is not the case. Sometimes these people would produce children with little eyes or red hair it was part of their genetic background. Some times the phenotype or outward appearance is not always expressed outwardly. Just like in the punnet square examples where the out come was (Gg heterozygous) and the (GG homozygous dominate) these both looked at from outward appearances appear dominate but are different in their genetic make-up. Everyone holds different variations of the genes which are called the alleles and just like in the dragon lab I was able to play with the alleles and manipulate them to attain the blue, legless, high flying, fire breathing dragon. When using the punnet square as a helper to figure out the outcome of the gametes into offspring the capital letter (G) denotes a dominate allele and the (g) denotes a recessive allele. You know the ole saying it takes two to tango well each person holds inside of themselves two genes for each trait one from the female and one from the male and dominance rules the course for action. For example, in the Fly punnet square as shown, the Gg is dominate and so is the GG. I really liked the labs on genetics. I thin kit is amazing that we have the abilities to predict the outcome of certain plants and animals by using these methods. With these abilities we are able to genetically mutate crops, flowers, and flies to fit into our basic needs.
Much of the knowledge heredity and genetics that was done early on was done by Gregor Mendel.
Traits that we posess as humans are passed down from our parents and family trees along the way. It was once thought that two parents with brown hair and big eyes would only produce children with the same characteristics but that is not the case. Sometimes these people would produce children with little eyes or red hair it was part of their genetic background. Some times the phenotype or outward appearance is not always expressed outwardly. Just like in the punnet square examples where the out come was (Gg heterozygous) and the (GG homozygous dominate) these both looked at from outward appearances appear dominate but are different in their genetic make-up. Everyone holds different variations of the genes which are called the alleles and just like in the dragon lab I was able to play with the alleles and manipulate them to attain the blue, legless, high flying, fire breathing dragon. When using the punnet square as a helper to figure out the outcome of the gametes into offspring the capital letter (G) denotes a dominate allele and the (g) denotes a recessive allele. You know the ole saying it takes two to tango well each person holds inside of themselves two genes for each trait one from the female and one from the male and dominance rules the course for action. For example, in the Fly punnet square as shown, the Gg is dominate and so is the GG. I really liked the labs on genetics. I thin kit is amazing that we have the abilities to predict the outcome of certain plants and animals by using these methods. With these abilities we are able to genetically mutate crops, flowers, and flies to fit into our basic needs.
Under no Uncertain TERMS
What you are seeing here is an example of dominate verses recessive genes and how they can effect the color of a flower!
Some key terms that might be helpful!
1) Genotype: it is the genetic make-up of an organism. Please note that organisms may look alike but have different genotypes.
2) Phenotype: it is the outward appearance of an organism. In Mendel's pea plant experiment and from the picture of the flowers you can see that just because the flower looks purple does not mean that we can tell by looking at it what the genetic make-up of the flower actually is. Some flowers may be dominate (PP) or some may be (Pp) which when put into a punnet square can change the outcome of the flowers.
3) Alleles: alternative form of a gene. This is what I did in the dragon demonstration
4) Cross-over: exchange of chromatin by homologous chromosomes during prophase 1 of meiosis. Results in considerably more genetic variation in gametes and offspring. An example of this was when I used the punnet squares with different parents and found out their off spring.
5) Dominant: Adjective used in genetics to refer to an allele that is always expressed in heterozygotes. It is denoted by a capital letter. For example, in the punnet squares I had parents that were dominate heterozygous (Gg) and dominate homozygous (GG)
6) Recessive: this is best described as an allele of a gene that is expressed when the dominate factor is missing. For example, in the punnet square with the flies I mentioned the 1:2:1 ratio. the recessive genes were in the (ll) or otherwise known as the homozygous recessive flies.
7) Cross: this is what it is called when you take the two parents and produce their offspring. the process in which this happens is calling crossing. The punnet square is an example of this taking place. If only one trait is being considered in a genetic ,then it is a monohybrid. If two traits are being considered in a genetic cross, the cross is called a dihybrid.
DRaGonMaNiA!!
As you can see this is the Dragon demonstration. It first started with two images and we had to match the bottom image to the top image. By clicking on each of the features ie wings, legs, horns, tail, scales, and picking either dominate or recessive determined how the dragon would turn out. To the right of the dragons what you are seeing are their chromosomes. Inside the chromosomes are the genetic material that give the specific characteristics to the dragon. What I did was change teh gene around by altering the alleles. In doing this I was able to duplicate the top dragon to a tee. Too bad he hasn't any legs!
Flies Offspring
Scenerio #5
Punnet square in action!
We are crossing two flies together.
Both parents are heterozygous long winged flies
At first I thought they would all turn out heterozygous but I was wrong. Instead they turned out with a ratio of 1:2:1 meaning; that if there was 100 flies bred together in this manner that 25 of them would be (GG) or homozygous dominant, 50 of them would be (Gg) or heterozygous and the last 25 would be (gg) homozygous recessive. it is amazing to see all the possible scenerios that can be combined using the punnet squares.
Thursday, February 7, 2008
Me & My Microscope
The microscope was one of the best inventions in medicine that we have today. When we were kids I think at one point in time we all put a microscope on our wish list. The first time I ever used a microscope was when I was in 6th grade and we looked under the microscope at the water that came from our drinking fountain. Since then I have been hooked. It amazed me that all movement that I saw was from just a few droplets of water from an everyday source. It made me think how many other things am I ingesting in the air or otherwise that I can't see with the naked eye. It allows us to explore and adventure throughout the paths of medicine. We are able to look at cells in the human body to plant life and better define different strains of bacterias, viruses, or illnesses. We are able to use the microscope to find solutions, cures, or answer questions that are otherwise unknown. For example, why does the AIDS virus attack our T cells and how? Or what commonalities do people have that have alzheimers, or parkinsons? Or let's take it to a more simple thought we are able to see cells and how they divide and defend our body against viruses, bacteria, and other unknown. It does not just stop there either but the micorscope helps our pets too by looking at different specimens sandwiched between two thin pieces of glass. I have not given it much thought but where would the world of medicine be without the invention of the microscope. We are able to answer these questions and many others by slipping a slide under the microscope, adding some magnification, light, and intellegence. Take a look at just an ordinary cheek cell and tell me that the microscope is not amazing!
Sunday, February 3, 2008
JUST Cheeky!
I was able to look at these cheek cells under a microscope simulation meaning everything was done online. I found this microscope simulation extremely interesting. I have not ever experienced something like this and it has been a while since I have seen cheek cells under magnification. So what you are seeing in the picture above is cheek cells under 40X magnification.
Let's talk Microscope
The compound microscope has two systems of lenses for different magnification. The microscope is made up of several parts that when worked simultaneously can reveal incredible images. The two types of system lenses for a microscope are the ocular and objective. The ocular lens is what you look through and the objective lens is what is closest to the specimen. Before we go any further it is important to know the different parts of the microscope.
Let’s start at the base of the microscope and work our way up.
*Base
This is what is at the bottom and supports the bottom of the microscope.
This is what is at the bottom and supports the bottom of the microscope.
*Light Source
It give you the light that is necessary to view your specimen.
It give you the light that is necessary to view your specimen.
*Fine Adjustment knob
It moves the stage or body tube up and down to get a for a better more clear image/ fine tuning
It moves the stage or body tube up and down to get a for a better more clear image/ fine tuning
*Course Adjustment knob
This knob moves the stage or body tube up or down to large adjustments
This knob moves the stage or body tube up or down to large adjustments
*Diaphragm
Controls the amount of light let in through the stage and slide
Controls the amount of light let in through the stage and slide
*Stage Clips
Holds the slide in place firmly so that it doesn’t move usually metal clips
Holds the slide in place firmly so that it doesn’t move usually metal clips
*Arm
Supports the body tube and it is usually where you would carry it but don’t forget to use two
Supports the body tube and it is usually where you would carry it but don’t forget to use two
hands.
*Objective lens
These are the magnification lenses-4X, 10X, 40X, 100X etc.
These are the magnification lenses-4X, 10X, 40X, 100X etc.
*Revolving Nosepiece
This is what hold the objectives and can be circulated around to different magnification choices. They vary in lengths depending on the magnification objective.
This is what hold the objectives and can be circulated around to different magnification choices. They vary in lengths depending on the magnification objective.
*Body Tube
This tube keeps the correct distance between objectives and eye piece
This tube keeps the correct distance between objectives and eye piece
*Ocular Lens
This is also referred to as the eye piece it has between 10X or 15X this is the piece that you look through to actually see the specimen.
This is also referred to as the eye piece it has between 10X or 15X this is the piece that you look through to actually see the specimen.
To basic operations of a microscope
1) Use two hands to move you microscope to area of choice
2) Turn the noise piece to the lowest power objective
3) Take slide and place it on the stage and fasten into place with the stage clips
4) Turn the coarse objective lenses so that is moves towards the slide but don’t let them touch
5) Now look through the eyepiece and adjust the diaphragm for the best amount of light
6) Adjust the oculars until they line up the light
7) Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the image into sight
8) Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the clarity
9) At this time you can put more light in by using the diaphragm
10) The objective in the back is the one in use
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